Argument Analysis and Question Types

Purpose of an Argument

• Solve a Problem
  • Premise: description of a problem
  • Conclusion: propose a solution or reject a proposed solution
  • Assumptions: the solution is complete and effective, with no other factors to consider

Interpreting Evidence

• Premise: fact(s)
• Conclusion: often broad, extreme, or unwarranted
• Assumptions: the facts directly support the broad conclusion without requiring additional information or interpretations.

Disagree with a Position

• Position is presented
• Conclusion: Author expresses disagreement
• Strength of Language: pay attention to terms like "could be wrong" vs. "is wrong"
• Premise: evidence against the original position and in support of the author's stance
• Assumptions: additional facts must disprove the old position, affirming the new position as mutually exclusive.

Question Types

• Main Point

  • Keywords: main point; main conclusion; argument structured to lead to which conclusion
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Match conclusion & premise; Use the "why test".

• Reasoning

  • Keywords: X responds to Y by…; claim that… plays what role; technique/method/strategy of argumentation/reasoning
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Match.

• Necessary Assumption

  • Keywords: assumption on which the argument depends/relies; assumption required
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: author must believe conclusion is true; use the negate tool to test assumptions.
  • Correct answers will: be essential, connect evidence to conclusion, rule out obstacles, and pass the negation test.
  • Wrong answers will: be irrelevant, contradict the conclusion, or be too strongly worded.

• Sufficient Assumption

  • Keywords: if assumed, allows conclusion to follow logically; guarantees the conclusion is valid
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Help by filling in missing links.
  • Correct answer: directly ties to the conclusion.
  • Wrong answers: may restate premises or introduce new information.

• Strengthen

  • Keywords: most supports/justifies the argument above; most strengthens
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Help; correct answers bolster the argument or introduce new supportive evidence.

• Principle-Strengthen

  • Keywords: principle that justifies the argument
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Help; correct answers state a general rule applicable to reach the conclusion.

• Weaken

  • Keywords: most undermines; calls into question; casts doubt on
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Hurt; correct answers introduce evidence that challenges the conclusion.

• Flaw

  • Keywords: flaw/error in reasoning; vulnerable to criticism
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Hurt; correct answers identify weaknesses or assumptions in the argument structure.

• Inference

  • Keywords: statements above, if true, support; must/could be true/false
  • Read for: Information
  • POE Guide: Extract; correct answers are typically paraphrases of the argument.

• Point-at-Issue

  • Keywords: committed to disagreeing about
  • Read for: reasoning/information
  • POE Guide: Extract.

• Resolve/Explain

  • Keywords: puzzling statement; apparent contradiction; paradox; resolution; explanation
  • Read for: Information
  • POE Guide: Help; correct answers bring in crucial new information.

• Parallel

  • Keywords: most analogous; similar pattern of reasoning
  • Read for: reasoning
  • POE Guide: Match.

• Principle-Match

  • Read for: sometimes reasoning
  • POE Guide: Match.

Recurring Flaws

• Comparison Flaws

  • Description: conclusion based on a comparison or analogy
  • Flaw/Assumption: assumes comparability and that what is true for one applies to the other.
  • Help: establish similarity or rule out differences; Hurt: highlight discrepancies between items compared.

• Surveys & Samples

  • Description: analysis of a survey or study in the argument
  • Structure: Interpret evidence; disagree with a position
  • Flaw/Assumption: the sample must represent the larger population in the conclusion
  • Help: demonstrate sample representation; Hurt: reveal non-representativeness.

• Absence of Evidence

  • Description: concludes based on lack of evidence
  • Flaw/Assumption: absence of evidence implies non-existence of evidence
  • Help: provide strengthening evidence; Hurt: highlight extremes or unwarranted conclusions.

• Circular Arguments

  • Description: conclusion and premises are merely restatements
  • Flaw/Assumption: assumes what is intended to be proven.

• Causation Flaw

  • Premise: A happens, B happens
  • Conclusion: A causes B
  • Assumptions: correlation implies causation without considering other variables other than coincidence.

Quantity Statements

• Definitions:
  • All: 100% (every instance)
  • None: 0% (no instances)
  • Most: >50%
  • Some: at least one or more
  • Many: similar to "some" or at least one.
  • Not many: can include zero.