Chapter 2: Text and Context Connections

CHAPTER 2: TEXT AND CONTEXT CONNECTIONS

Prepared by: Erica C. Torrente, LPT

MOTIVATIONS

• Context of motivations discussed in the context of flavors of yogurt.

LESSON 1: EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CLAIMS

Introduction to Claims

• Claims are synonymous with belief, argument, assertion, or stand.

• A good claim, according to Tiongson (2016, pages 20-21), should be:
    - Argumentative and debatable.
    - Specific and focused.
    - Interesting and engaging.
    - Logical.

WHAT IS AN EXPLICIT CLAIM?

• Definition: Explicit claims are directly, precisely, and clearly stated assertions that reveal what a writer or speaker is trying to explain based on what they actually say.

• Identification: Easily identified by linking them to the claim using the word or concept "because."
  
  

Example of Explicit Claims

• Claim: Johnny is "guilty of murder."
    - Explicit Reason: Because "he killed Jose."

WHAT IS AN IMPLICIT CLAIM?

• Definition: Implicit claims are not directly stated but are assertions that can be inferred by reading between the lines.

• Contextual Dependency: Assumptions often imply certain values, which are dependent on the context.

Examples of Implicit Claims

• The argument provides evidence suggesting that Johnny did kill Jose.

• The logical connection between “kill” and “murder” can be determined by various contexts:
    - Did Johnny kill Jose purposefully?
    - Was it an accident?
    - Was it in self-defense or during a conflict?

• This analysis will affect the validity of the claim.

Evidence Examination Example

• Claim: Johnny murdered Jose.
    - Explicit Reason: Because he shot him while watching the show.
    - Implicit Reason 1: He shot him on purpose.
    - Implicit Reason 2: The shooting was not justified.

• To support the argument, find evidence that backs both the explicit and implicit reasons.

Broader Example of Claims

• Claim: Increasing access to education leads to higher economic growth.
    - Explicit Reason: Investing in education improves workforce skills, innovation, and productivity, thus stimulating economic development.
    - Implicit Reason: Societies prioritizing education are committed to long-term prosperity and social progress, showcasing education's transformative power.

Difficulty in Proving Claims

• Proving an explicit claim is relatively straightforward through references to factual data.

• Proving an implicit claim is more challenging as it often requires contextual understanding.

STRUCTURE OF AN ARGUMENT

• Claims: The main idea or thesis presenting or defending an issue.

• Reasons or Premise: The basis or assumption from which reasoning proceeds.

LESSON 1.1: CLAIMS OF FACT

Definition of Claims of Fact

• Claims of fact assert that a condition existed, exists, or will exist and are based on factual evidence or data.

• These claims center on critical text analysis, pointing out truths and potential for controversy.

Examples of Claims of Fact

• Example of a Claim: The sun is shining today.

• Not a Claim of Fact:
    a. Signs and symptoms of a medical emergency.
    b. Defendant accused of a crime.

Guidelines for Writing and Defending Claims of Fact

• Clarity: Claims of fact should be clearly stated.

• Qualification: Often qualified by terms such as "generally," "probably," or "as a rule."

• Definition of Terms: Define controversial or ambiguous terms.

• Sufficient & Appropriate Data: Valid claims must rely upon reliable and accurate data.

• Use of Authorities: Claims must be supported by reliable authorities to avoid ambiguity and bias associated with Internet information.

Additional Guidelines

• Distinguish between facts and inferences.

• Proper arrangement of evidence should emphasize the significant points.

Examples of Potential Research Topics for Claims of Fact

1. The risk of an intensity 8 earthquake hitting parts of Metro Manila warrants government-prepared plans to prevent casualties.

2. Public secondary schools in the Philippines generally do not adequately prepare students for college.

3. The application of the death penalty in the Philippines is ineffective and impractical.

LESSON 1.2: CLAIMS OF POLICY

Definition of Claims of Policy

• Claims of policy provide solutions or pose further questions in response to claims of fact.

• These claims often involve structured plans or procedures to address specific problems.

Example of a Claim of Policy in Medicine

• Scenario: Johnny has a bad back due to a herniated disc; action is required due to his profession as a fitness instructor.
    - Claims of Policy:
      1. Back surgery might be necessary.
      2. Chiropractic treatment should be considered.
      3. Massage/exercise/postural retraining may be effective.

• A doctor suggests that the third claim of policy is the superior option for treatment.

Lines of Reasoning Example

1. A claim of fact: Jim Santos is guilty of killing his wife.

2. A claim of value: Investigate intent—first-degree, manslaughter, accident, etc.

3. A claim of policy: Determine punishment—acquittal, imprisonment, execution, etc.

Requirements for Proof

1. A proposed action must be clear.

2. Justification of the action is essential.

3. The plan must be workable.

4. Benefits of the proposed actions should be highlighted.

5. Addressing opposition or counterarguments is necessary.

Guidelines for Writing and Defending Claims of Policy

• Claims should outline the necessary conditions.

• Clearly articulate proposals and define relevant terms.

• Establish the need for change if necessary.

• Utilize "should,” "ought to,” or “must” in claims.

• Examine and respond to opposing arguments in the body of your argument.

• Dedicate substantial evidence to rebut opposing viewpoints.

Examples of Potential Research Topics for Claims of Policy

1. The Philippines should pursue normalization of diplomatic and trade relations with China.

2. Funding of fetal tissue research by the Philippine government should be disallowed.

3. “Recovered memory