Respiratory System
Bronch(o) - pertaining to the bronchus
Bronchiol(o) - pertaining to the bronchiole(s)
Epiglott(o) - pertaining to the epiglottis
Interstitial - the space between cells in a tissue
Laryng(o) - pertaining to the larynx
Mediastinum - the middle section of the thoracic cavity, between the left and right pleural cavities where the lungs are, that hold the heart, major blood vessels, esophagus, trachea, and other structures
Palat(o) - pertaining to the palate
Pharyng(o) - pertaining to the pharynx
Pulmon(o) - pertaining to the lungs
Sinus(o) - pertaining to a sinus
Thorac(o) - pertaining to the thorax
Trache(o) - pertaining to the trachea
Nas(o) and rhin(o) are combining forms for nose.
The prefix dia- means across and phragm(o) means wall.
The diaphragm is a large muscle, which separates the chest and abdomen. Diaphragmat(o) and phren(o) are the combining terms for diaphragm.
The term steth(o) is used to refer to the chest.
The suffix -pnea refers to breathing. The term brady means abnormally slow while the term tachy means abnormally rapid.
Bradyonea and tachypnea are examples of abnormal low and high respiratory rates.
Respiration involves the diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the atmosphere and body. The term capn(o) refers to levels of carbon dioxide, while the terms ox(i), ox(o), and ox(y) can all be used to refer to oxygen levels.
Respiratory Pathology
The term asthma refers to a chronic allergic disorder that causes airway narrowing, excessive mucus secretion, and coughing.
Asphyxiation is suffocation or interrupted breathing resulting in a lack of oxygen.
Bronchitis refers to inflammation of the bronchi which can be from an infectious cause, such as a bacterial or viral disease, or from irritation or allergies. Bronchiolitis indicates inflammation in the smaller bronchioles; its etiology is similar.
Poor tissue oxygenation causes cyanosis, an abnormal blue coloration of skin and mucus membranes. An example of cyanosis in a cow with the viral disease "Blue tongue" is shown below.
Aspiration is the inhalation of a foreign material into the upper respiratory system.
Congestion is the abnormal accumulation of fluid.
Edema is an example of congestion in which there is an abnormal amount of fluid in intercellular tissue spaces (edema can occur anywhere, not just the respiratory tract).
Congestion can be caused by effusion, the escape of fluid from the blood or lymphatic vessels into surrounding tissues or spaces.
In the digestive systems module, you learned about cirrhosis, which caused scarring of the liver. Cirrhosis is an example of fibrosis. Fibrosis is the abnormal scarring or thickening of a tissue. Pulmonary fibrosis is the abnormal formation of fibers in the alveolar walls. Emphysema is a lung disease characterized by enlarged or damaged alveoli.
Pneumonia refers to inflammation of the alveoli, typically from an infectious cause such as a bacterial, viral, or fungal disease. Below is a picture of the lungs of a foal who died from Rhodococcus equi pneumonia.
A polyp is a growth on a mucous membrane, such as the mouth, nasal passages, inner ear, and lining of the digestive tract. Polyps can sometimes interfere with respiration as they cause narrowing of a respiratory structure.
Upper respiratory infections (URIs) occur when pathogenic organisms invade the upper respiratory system, causing symptoms such as cough, nasal discharge, dyspnea, and respiratory noise.
Respiratory Procedures
Auscultation is the act of listening. Abnormal or pathologic respiratory sounds are called adventitious sounds.
Thoracic radiographs are commonly used to assess the airways and lungs in a patient with lower respiratory disease.
In horses, a live view of the gutteral pouches is possible using endoscopy.
In patients with lower respiratory disease, bronchoscopy can provide real time evaluation of the bronchi. Here is an example in a dog with chronic bronchiectasis - thickened, inflamed bronchi due to chronic infection or an inflammatory disease.
Another diagnostic technique is a bronchoalveolar lavage which is a way of passing sterile water in the lower respiratory tract and then quickly suctioning it back to gather cells, infectious organisms, or anything else that might be causing symptoms in the patient.
Percussion can be used with auscultation in the respiratory system to differentiate between areas in the chest filled with air versus areas filled with fluid. As a treatment, percussion can be used to help break up mucus in the lower respiratory tract so that it is easier for the patient to cough it out.
A spirometer is an instrument used to measure the air capacity of the lungs.
During anesthesia, veterinarians monitor pulse oximetry (SPO2) (oxygen + measurement) and end-tidal (end-of-breath) carbon dioxide production via capnography (CO2 + measurement)