AP Human Geography Unit Review: Thinking Geographically and Human Patterns

Types of Geographic Maps

Definition of Reference Maps: These maps focus on the specific location of places and the objects surrounding them. Examples of reference maps include political maps, road maps, or classroom maps.
Definition of Thematic Maps: These maps highlight a specific theme or specific type of information rather than just general location. Typical data points include population, political affiliations, age distribution, or income.
Dot Density Map: These maps use dots to represent the frequency or density of a phenomenon. * Case Study (US Lightning Deaths 2007-2017): One dot equals one person. The map shows representative densities where each box represents $135\,sq\,miles$ . The legend distinguishes between male (black dot) and female (white dot). Alaska and Hawaii are excluded as no lightning deaths were recorded there during this period.
Choropleth Map: Maps which utilize shades or patterns to represent different levels of data. For example, a map showing the 2016 November General Election with total votes expressed as percentages across US states.
Proportional Symbol Map: These use symbols (typically circles) of different sizes to represent data values. * Case Study (The New Urban World): In 2007, the world reached a milestone where more than half the population ( $3.3\,billion$ people) lived in cities. This is projected to grow to $5\,billion$ by 2030. Examples from the map include Tokyo ( $33.4\,million$ ), New York ( $12.0\,million$ ), and London ( $12.1\,million$ ).
Cartogram: A map where the size and shape of geographical areas are distorted based on a specific statistic. For example, the 2020 US Election Cartogram distorts state sizes based on electoral votes: Joseph R. Biden Jr. ( $306$ votes, $79,554,207$ total votes, $51.0\%$ ) and Donald J. Trump ( $232$ votes, $73,611,180$ total votes, $47.2\%$ ).
Topographic Map: These maps display the vertical and horizontal positions of features, often using contour lines to show elevation.
Isoline Map: These maps utilize lines to connect points of equal value, often used for weather or elevation data.

Map Projections and Distortions

Mercator Projection: This projection is rectangular and distorts the size of landmasses, particularly making areas near the poles appear much larger than they are in reality.
Robinson Projection: This projection attempts to balance distortion by showing the whole world at once, although it distorts all properties (area, shape, size, and direction) to a small degree.
Goode-Homolosine Projection: This is an interrupted map projection often called the "orange peel" map; it minimizes distortion of the size and shape of landmasses but separates the oceans.
Winkler-Triple Projection: A compromise projection aimed at minimizing the three types of distortion: area, direction, and distance.

Place vs. Location and Connectivity

Geographic Positioning: Geographers describe a feature's place on Earth by identifying its location—the position that something occupies on Earth's surface.
Definition of Place: A specific point on Earth distinguished by a particular characteristic.
Absolute Location: A fixed point on the planet designated by an address or coordinates. * Coordinates Example: $28.417663, -81.581212$ * Address Example: 1180 Seven Seas Dr, Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830.
Relative Location: The location of a place relative to another object or landmark. Example: "Disney World is located on the East Coast about 15 minutes from Downtown Orlando."
Time Space Compression: The increasing sense of connectivity that brings people closer together despite distances remaining physically the same. Examples include: * 1492: Columbus took $37\,days$ to cross the Atlantic. * 1927: Lindbergh took $33.5\,hours$ to fly from NYC to Paris. * 1962: Astronaut John Glenn orbited the earth 3 times in approximately $5\,hours$ .

Environmental Philosophy and Map Scale

Environmental Determinism: The theory that the physical environment, particularly climate and geography, dictates human thought, behavior, and social development.
Possibilism: The theory that humans are capable of using tools and technology to overcome or alter environmental limitations.
Ratio or Fraction Scale: Represented as $1:24,000$ or $\frac{1}{24,000}$ . One unit on the left represents the same unit on Earth's surface on the right.
Written Scale: Explains the relationship in words, such as " $1\,inch$ equals $1\,mile$ ."
Graphic Scale: Uses a bar line marked with distances to allow a user to overlay points and determine actual Earth surface distance.

Patterns of Regions

Formal (Uniform/Homogeneous) Region: Regions defined by a unifying physical or human characteristic, such as language, political system, or religion. Example: German-speaking countries.
Functional (Nodal) Region: Regions organized around a central node or focal point, often connected by transportation or communication. Example: The NYC subway network.
Perceptual (Vernacular) Region: Regions defined by people’s individual ideas or perceptions rather than strict boundaries. These often have "fuzzy" edges. Example: "The South" in the United States.

Population Mathematics and Density

Arithmetic Density: Calculated by dividing total population by total surface area. * Formula: $\text{Arithmetic Density} = \frac{ ext{Total Population}}{\text{Land/Surface Area}}$ * Germany Case Study: $\frac{83,300,000 \text{ people}}{349,380 \text{ sq km}} = \text{people per sq km}$
Agricultural Density: Calculated by dividing the number of farmers by the amount of arable land. * Formula: $\text{Agricultural Density} = \frac{ ext{Farmers}}{\text{Arable Land}}$ * Germany Case Study: $\frac{940,000 \text{ farmers}}{11,731,000 \text{ hectares}} = \text{farmers per ha}$
Physiological Density: Calculated by dividing the total population by the amount of arable land. * Formula: $\text{Physiological Density} = \frac{\text{Total Population}}{\text{Arable Land}}$ * Germany Case Study: $\frac{83,300,000 \text{ people}}{11,731,000 \text{ hectares}} = \text{people per ha of arable land}$

Population Pyramids and Growth

Expansive Pyramid: Features a large number of people in younger age groups, predicting rapid population growth.
Stationary Pyramid: Equal proportions in most age groups, indicating a stable population that is neither increasing nor decreasing significantly.
Constrictive Pyramid: Lower percentage of younger people, predicting a decline in population.
Japan Case Study: Japan is seeing a decline where children are fewer than elderly individuals. Projection suggests that by 2050, it may resemble an inverted pyramid due to sustained low birth rates.
Rate of Natural Increase (RNI): The percentage by which a population grows annually, considering only births and deaths (excluding migration). The world's NIR is projected to decline globally by $2100$ .

Models of Demographic and Epidemiologic Transition

Demographic Transition Model (DTM): * Stage 1 (High Fluctuating): High birth and death rates. * Stage 2 (Early Expanding): Death rates drop significantly while birth rates remain high, leading to rapid natural increase. * Stage 3 (Late Expanding): Birth rates begin to drop, and death rates continue to stay low. * Stage 4 (Low Fluctuating): Low birth and death rates leading to zero or low growth. * Stage 5 (Decline): Birth rates drop below death rates.
Epidemiologic Transition: * Stage 1: Infectious and parasitic diseases (e.g., Black Plague), crop failure, animal attacks. * Stage 2: Receding pandemics due to improved sanitation, nutrition, and medicine. * Stage 3: Degenerative and human-created diseases (e.g., cancer, heart disease). * Stage 4: Delayed degenerative diseases; medical advances extend life despite sedentary lifestyles. * Stage 5: Return of infectious and parasitic diseases resistant to antibiotics (e.g., COVID variants).
Life Expectancy Determinants: Factors include socioeconomics, diet, physical activity, addictive behaviors, disease, war, food security, and psychological stress.

Migration and Culture

Push Factors: Negative conditions in a source area causing people to leave.
Pull Factors: Positive conditions in a destination area drawing people in.
Ravenstein’s Gender Patterns: Historically, women more likely to move internally while young males moved internationally. Current trends show more female international migrants as they enter the global workforce.
Forced vs. Voluntary Migration: * Voluntary: Transnational, internal, chain, step, rural-to-urban. * Forced: Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons (IDP), and asylum seekers. Example: Syria's conflict-driven crisis.
Cultural Traits: Include Language (symbols for communication), Religion (relationship to the holy), and Artifacts (jewelry, art, music).
Evaluating Culture: * Cultural Relativism: Evaluating a culture by its own standards. * Ethnocentrism: Evaluating another culture through the lens of one’s own, assuming superiority.
Cultural Landscape (Carl Sauer): The combination of cultural, economic, and natural elements (e.g., agriculture, architecture, religion).
Forces: * Centripetal: Forces that unite (e.g., common language, nationalism). * Centrifugal: Forces that divide (e.g., ethnic discrimination, income inequality).

Diffusion and Language

Types of Diffusion: * Relocation: Physical movement of people (e.g., Chinatown NYC). * Expansion: Feature spreads in an additive process. * Hierarchical: Spreads from power nodes/authority. * Contagious: Rapid, widespread characteristic through the population. * Stimulus: Underlying principle spreads but fails to keep the specific characteristic (e.g., McDonalds catering to local tastes).
Barriers to Diffusion: Distance decay, physical barriers (mountains), political barriers, economic barriers.
Lingua Franca: A common language adopted between speakers of different native languages (e.g., English today).
Diaspora: Scattered population interconnected beyond a home territory (e.g., Jewish or Sikh diaspora).
Pidgin Language: A simplified version of a language used by non-native speakers for trade.
Creole Language: A pidgin language that evolves into the primary language of a group (e.g., French Creole in Haiti and Louisiana, Gullah in the SE US).

Religon Systems

Universalizing Religions: Seek to convert others and claim global applicability (Buddhism, Christianity, Islam).
Ethnic Religions: Regional, closed membership by birth or marriage (Judaism, Hinduism).
Religious Organization: * Autonomous: Shares ideas but lacks central authority (Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Baptist). * Hierarchical: Central authority controls the organization (Catholicism, Lutheran, Episcopal).
Integration Processes: * Acculturation: Adopting elements of a prominent culture (e.g., wearing jeans). * Assimilation: Minority group eventually adopts the prominent culture (sometimes forced, e.g., Native American boarding schools). * Syncretism: Blending cultures together (e.g., Tex-Mex, Korean Barbecue).

Political Geography and States

The Modern State: A political organization with a permanent population, governing institutions, defined borders, sovereignty, and international recognition.
Regime Types: Democratic vs. Authoritarian.
Nations and Borders: * Nation: Cultural group with historical attachment to a place. * Nation-State: Borders match the culture (e.g., Iceland). * Multinational State: Several national groups within one border (e.g., UK). * Multi-State Nation: Culture spreads across multiple borders (e.g., Germans in Austria, Switzerland, Belgium).
Colonialism and Treaties: * Berlin Conference (1884): European powers divided Africa without regard for tribal culture. * Treaty of Versailles (1920): Redrew boundaries after WWI, breaking up German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman empires.
Key Contemporary Terms: * Balkanization: Fragmentation of a state into smaller, ethnically homogeneous entities. * Devolution: Decentralizing power from central to subnational governments. * Neocolonialism: Economic domination of independent countries by foreign business (e.g., Nike factories in low-cost labor regions). * Shatterbelts: Areas where global/regional political divisions cause local conflict (e.g., Israel-Palestine). * Chokepoints: Narrow openings (Suez Canal, Strait of Hormuz) vital for trade.

Boundaries and Law of the Sea

Boundary Types: * Relic: Former boundary with remaining significance (Berlin Wall). * Superimposed: Drawn by outside powers ignoring local culture (Africa). * Antecedent: Drawn before people settled (Pyrenees). * Geometric: Straight lines (latitude/longitude). * Subsequent: Drawn after settlement/war. * Consequent: Drawn to accommodate cultural differences.
UNCLOS (Law of the Sea): * Territorial Waters: Up to $12\,nautical\,miles$ ; state regulates passage. * Contiguous Zone: $12$ to $24\,nautical\,miles$ ; may enforce laws on pollution, tax, customs, and immigration. * Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ): Up to $200\,nautical\,miles$ ; sole right to exploit natural resources (fishing).

Governance Structures

Unitary State: Strong centralized government; power in a national capital (e.g., Japan, France).
Federal State: Decentralized structure; power shared between national and local assemblies (e.g., USA, Germany, Nigeria).
Supranationalism: Countries joining organizations for mutual benefit (UN, NATO, EU). Members often cede some sovereignty (e.g., Eurozone countries giving up currency control).

Agricultural Systems and Land Survey

Extensive Farming: Low capital/labor input, large land plots, low yield. Examples: Shifting cultivation (slash-and-burn), Nomadic herding, Ranching.
Intensive Farming: High capital/labor input, small land plots, high yield. Examples: Plantation agriculture (cash crops), Mixed crop and livestock, Market gardening (Truck farming).
Settlement Patterns: * Clustered: Houses close together. * Linear: Along roads or rivers. * Dispersed: Isolated farms (US Midwest).
Survey Methods: * Metes and Bounds: Uses natural landmarks (rivers, roads). * Township and Range: Geometric grid (six-mile squares). * Long Lot: Narrow strips fronted by rivers (French influence).
Agricultural Revolutions: * First: Change in human effort. * Second: Technology improvement (Enclosure Acts, Industrial Revolution). * Third (Green Revolution): Hybridization, GMOs, chemical fertilizers, and machinery (1945–1985).

Models of Land Use and Urbanization

von Thünen Model: Focuses on maximizing profit based on transportation costs/market proximity. * Ring 1: Vegetables, Fruit, Dairy (perishable). * Ring 2: Forests (heavy fuel/timber). * Ring 3: Grains and Field Crops. * Ring 4: Ranching and Livestock (self-transporting animals).
Food Deserts: Geographic areas with limited access to affordable, healthy food.
Central Place Theory (Christaller): Explains the distribution of cities based on market areas and consumer behavior.
Rank-Size Rule: The $nth$ -largest settlement is $\frac{1}{n}$ the size of the largest city. * Formula: $\text{City Population} = \frac{\text{Largest City Population}}{n}$
Primate City Rule: The largest city is more than twice the size of the second city (e.g., dominance).
Models of American Cities: * Burgess Concentric Model: Rings based on socioeconomic status (1920s Chicago). * Hoyt Sector Model: Wedge-like sectors radiating from CBD along transport lines. * Harris-Ullman Multiple Nuclei: Multiple economic nodes/CBDs (1945). * Galactic (Peripheral) Model: Service-based, highway-oriented with edge cities.
Social & Residential Concepts: * Redlining: Banks refusing loans in specific urban areas. * Blockbusting: Real estate tactics focused on ethnic shifts to lower prices. * Gentrification: Rebuilding low-income areas into middle-class neighborhoods. * New Urbanism: Promoting walkable, mixed-use neighborhoods.

Questions & Discussion

Question (Population Pyramid): What factors might account for the shape of an interesting population pyramid like Japan's? (Discussing declining children and increasing elderly populations).
Question (Language): Does anything surprise you about the number of native speakers (e.g., Chinese at $1.39\,billion$ vs. others)?
Question (Urban Dynamics): Identify and explain TWO reasons that food deserts exist in urban areas within developed countries.
Question (Global Scale): Which of the following map scales would be most useful for studying the details of geographic features in the landscape of a farming community? (Scale: $1:10,000$ is the most detailed).