Four Waves of Urbanization in China
3rd Wave (1988-2001)
- Continued economic reform and industrialization.
- Land reform in 1988: Changed free land use to paid use, providing capital for urban regeneration and infrastructure.
- Housing reform in 1988.
- Growth of the property market.
- First land auction in Shenzhen in 1987 promoted constitutional changes.
- Prior, land was state (urban) or collectively (rural) owned; no private ownership.
- Land allocated free to state/collective enterprises before reform.
- Reform began in Special Economic Zones (SEZs), allowing land leasing to foreign/joint enterprises.
- Separation of land use rights from ownership led to a 1988 constitutional amendment.
- Pre-reform, housing was part of the welfare system for workers in state/collective enterprises at a nominal price.
- Privatization and emergence of new ownership enterprises questioned free housing.
- State Council initiated housing reform in 1988.
- Real estate became significant for urban economy growth and employment.
Urban Spatial Structure
- Land use distribution.
- Social areas (social class distribution).
- Population density distribution.
- Models: Concentric Ring Model, Sector Model, Multiple Nuclei Model.
- Population gradient decreases with distance from city center.
Dual Urban Land Market
- Leased Land (market-allocated): auction, tender, negotiation; market value, fixed time period.
- Administratively Allocated Land: allocation to work unit; non-market value, unlimited period.
- Increase in land use efficiency.
- Urban renewal and sprawl.
- Change of residential and industrial use to commercial use.
- Cheap rural land (agricultural land loss).
- Increased speed in restructuring of urban landscape.
4th Wave (2001-)
- Cities of consumption and services (rising GDP per capita).
- Focus on service industry development and urbanization.
- Producer services designated to enhance global competitiveness.
- Economic transition from agriculture and manufacturing to services.
Producer Service Development in China
- Financial, real estate, and other high-growth sectors.
- Predictable growth in producer services.
- Policy support for finance, logistics, and information industries.
- Increasing concentration in top cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou.
City Competition and Place Marketing
- Improvements in city landscape using new iconic architecture.
- Mega-events such as the Beijing Olympics and Shanghai World Expo for city promotion.
- Infrastructure improvements: transport, airport, and high-speed rail.
Pseudo-Urbanization
- Rural surplus labor flows to cities for low-threshold service jobs, forming urban poor communities.
- Rapid development of information- and knowledge-intensive producer services.
- Spatial restructuring: industries and housing move out of city centers.
- Service-led urban economy increases multi-direction traffic.
National Plan on New Urbanization (2014-2020)
- Aims to avoid Third World urban problems.
- Focus on developing small cities and towns.
- Reducing migration pressure on large cities.
- Equalizing basic public services.
- Shifting economic functions to smaller cities.
- Mega-city regions as major spatial carriers.