DRIVE REDUCTION THEORY

• Physiological need creates aroused tension (drive).
• Motivated by homeostasis (maintaining equilibrium).
  • Example: "I'm hungry, I seek out food to decrease my hunger".

APPROACH CONFLICT THEORY (Lewin)

• Different types of approach conflicts:
  • Approach-Approach Conflict: Win-win situation; must choose between two favorable options.
  • Example: Choosing one of two favorite restaurants.
  • Approach-Avoidance Conflict: Win-lose situation; one option has both positive and negative aspects.
  • Example: Deciding to eat dessert which is both tempting and unhealthy.
  • Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict: Lose-lose; both choices are undesirable.
  • Example: Cleaning your room or doing homework.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY

• Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic:
  • Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior because one enjoys it.
  • Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior to obtain external rewards (e.g. trophies).

INCENTIVE THEORY

• Motivation driven by external rewards (extrinsic).

AROUSAL THEORY

• Humans seek to optimize arousal levels for performance:
  • Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal arousal leads to optimal performance.
  • Easier tasks require higher arousal; harder tasks need lower arousal.
    • Performance Level
    • Difficult Tasks: Require lower arousal for optimal performance.
    • Easy Tasks: Require higher arousal for optimal performance.

SENSATION SEEKING THEORY

• People need varied experiences to be happy:
  • Types of Sensation Seeking:
  • Experience Seeking: Desire to try new things.
  • Thrill/Adventure Seeking: Attraction to risky experiences (e.g. skydiving).
  • Disinhibition: Preference for behaviors that lead to loss of self-control (e.g. substance use).
  • Boredom Susceptibility: Inability to tolerate repetition, constantly seeking change.

HUNGER

• Biology of hunger:
  • Leptin: Signals to stop eating.
  • Ghrelin: Signals to start eating.
• Psychology of hunger:
  • Environmental cues influence hunger (e.g. time of day).
  • Memory impacts hunger; amnesia patients may eat again since they don't remember when they last ate.

EMOTION

• Historical theories focused on:
  • Physiological arousal (e.g. heart rate) and cognitive experience of emotion.
• Current theories emphasize cognitive labeling/appraisal of emotions:
  • Some theories suggest labeling occurs before arousal, others suggest it occurs simultaneously.
• Polygraphs: Unreliable due to the complexity of emotional response origins.
• Biological Explanation:
  • Some stimuli go directly to the amygdala (quick emotional reactions).
  • Other stimuli processed by the frontal lobe (thoughtful emotional response).

FACIAL FEEDBACK HYPOTHESIS

• Suggests that facial expressions can influence emotional experience (e.g. smiling boosts happiness).

BROADEN AND BUILD THEORY

• Positive emotions broaden awareness and build skills over time, enhancing well-being:
  • Positive emotions lead to joy, love, contentment, and interest.
  • Leads to personal growth and more positive emotions, emphasizing mental and physical health.

HEALTH AND STRESS

• Health Psychology focuses on physical well-being.
• Health issues associated with stress: hypertension, headaches, immune suppression.
• Universal Emotions: Six identified universal emotions (hapiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, fear).
• Display Rules: Cultural norms about expressing emotions.
• Types of Stress:
  • Distress: Negative, damaging stress.
  • Eustress: Positive, motivating stress (e.g. graduation).
• Tend and Befriend Theory: Some people cope with stress by caring for themselves and connecting with others (often women).
• General Adaptation Syndrome:
  • Phases of stress response:
  • Alarm: Shock, fight/flight response.
  • Resistance: Enhanced immune response, coping.
  • Exhaustion: Body's resources deplete, increased illness risk.
• Coping Strategies:
  • Problem-Focused Coping: Active efforts to address stress (e.g. to-do lists).
  • Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses (e.g. meditation, exercise).

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Researching factors contributing to well-being (e.g. gratitude, strengths).
• Posttraumatic Growth: Trauma can lead to resilience and growth.
• Signature Strengths/Virtues:
  • Wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, transcendence.

EXPLAINING AND CLASSIFYING DISORDERS

• Seven Perspectives:
  • Biological: Genetically driven changes in neurotransmitter systems.
  • Evolutionary: Adaptive behaviors for survival and reproduction.
  • Cognitive: Focus on maladaptive thinking.
  • Behavioral: Emphasizes learned associations.
  • Psychodynamic: Uncovering early unconscious conflicts.
  • Humanistic: Focus on social support and self-actualization.
  • Sociocultural: Influence of social dynamics on behavior.

DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS

• Diagnostic criteria:
  • Requires training to diagnose using tools like DSM (APA) and ICD (WHO).
• Diagnostic Labels: Can have positive effects (acceptance, treatment) as well as negative (stigma).

NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS

• Behaviors inappropriate for age; usual onset in childhood:
  • Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Inattention affecting function; caused by changes in brain areas.
  • Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Impairment in social relationships and communication.

FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS

• Anorexia Nervosa: Major calorie restriction.
• Bulimia Nervosa: Binge eating followed by purging.
• Causes include biological, sociocultural, and cognitive factors.

DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS

• Major Depressive Disorder: Extreme sadness; loss of interest.
• Persistent Depressive Disorder: Long-term, less severe depression.

BIPOLAR DISORDERS

• Mania: Elevated mood, risk-taking.
• Bipolar I: Features manic episodes.
• Bipolar II: Features hypomanic episodes.
• Causes can be biological, cognitive, or sociocultural factors.

SCHIZOPHRENIA

• Acute vs. Chronic: Acute has episodes with normal functioning in between; chronic shows decreased functioning.
• Symptoms:
  • Positive Symptoms: Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech.
  • Negative Symptoms: Flat affect, catatonia.
• Causes: Genetic predisposition, dopamine excess, environmental triggers.

ANXIETY DISORDERS

• Phobias: Irrational fears.
• Panic Disorder: Frequent, unanticipated panic attacks.
• Social Anxiety Disorder: Fear of negative evaluation in social situations.
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Constant anxiety.
• Causes include behavioral conditioning and cognitive distortions.

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS

• Dissociative Amnesia: Inability to remember past; can include Fugue.
• Dissociative Identity Disorder: Not schizophrenia; involves formation of multiple identities.

OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDERS

• OCD: Obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors).
• Hoarding Disorder: Accumulation of items due to compulsive behavior.

TRAUMA AND STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS

• PTSD: Impact of traumatic events leading to severe anxiety and emotional detachment.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

• Noted for disruptive, inflexible behavior patterns:
  • Cluster A (Odd/Eccentric): Paranoid, Schizoid, Schizotypal.
  • Cluster B (Dramatic/Emotional): Antisocial, Borderline, Histrionic, Narcissistic.
  • Cluster C (Anxious/Fearful): Avoidant, Dependent, Obsessive-Compulsive.

TREATMENTS FOR DISORDERS

• Ethics in therapy: Nonmaleficence, fidelity, integrity, respect.
• Psychodynamic Approach: Free association, dream analysis.
• Biological Approach: Medication and psychosurgery.
  • Prognosis with psychoactive drugs; side effects like Tardive Dyskinesia.
• Humanistic Approach: Focus on self-discovery; active listening, unconditional positive regard.
• Cognitive Approach: Restructuring negative thought patterns.
• Behavioral Approach: Identify and modify behavior through classical/operant conditioning techniques.
• Combined Approaches: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Dialectical Behavior Therapy.
• Other Techniques: Group therapy, hypnosis.