Baroque & Rococo
Baroque Art
The term “Baroque” is generally used to refer to
artworks produced from the late sixteenth century
through the mid-eighteenth century. Baroque styles
differed from those of the Renaissance in that Baroque
artworks tended to be less static than Renaissance
examples; the Baroque is characterized by a greater
sense of movement and energy. The political structure
of Europe during the Baroque era also differed from
that of the Renaissance. Whereas the Renaissance
witnessed wars between cities, the Baroque era saw
conflicts between empires. During this time, the
Church was determined to preserve its dominance
in Spain and Italy, and orders like the Jesuits were
founded to convert the peoples of other areas. Baroque
art appealed largely to the emotions, and thus, these
artists, influenced by the Counter-Reformation, aimed
at dramatic and moving appeals to faith.
The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Europe
were a time when society was governed by a ruling
class that viewed its power as a divine right. Some of
the most powerful sovereigns ever to rule are from
this period. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, Peter
the Great and Catherine the Great of Russia, and King
Louis XIV of France dominated the lives of the people
of their countries. It was a time that saw the ongoing
concentration of power and wealth into the hands of
a few, until the results eventually became intolerable
for the majority of the people. While a small minority
of the population lived in great luxury, the lives of
ordinary people were generally quite difficult, and
eventually this disparity gave rise to protests like those
found in the writings of Enlightenment authors, Jean-
Jacques Rousseau in particular. Ironically, however, it
was the patronage of the wealthy ruling class that gave
rise to the great works of art of the period.
As we might expect, the art of the Baroque period
moved away from the classic simplicity and calm that
was so characteristic of Renaissance works. The word
“baroque” has come to represent the richness of color
and ornamentation that heightened the energy and
emotion that were characteristic of the great works of art
of this period. The emphasis was on dynamic works that
presented imagery in the most dramatic way possible.
Baroque painters made use of chiaroscuro, using
exaggerated contrasts between light and dark to create a
theatrical kind of lighting that made the subject appear
to be in a spotlight. Caravaggio (1571–1610), an Italian
Baroque painter, was renowned for his dramatic use
of light and dark, and his technique influenced many
artists who followed. Caravaggio’s work is so important
that artworks using extremes of dark and light are often
termed “caravaggesque.” Caravaggio’s work is also
notable for its provocative degree of naturalism. For
example, Caravaggio portrayed the Virgin Mary and the
apostles not as noble figures in classical garb as they had
traditionally been represented, but instead depicted them
as poor and simple folks in threadbare garments. His
use of actual lower-class individuals as models for his
work helped him achieve this effect. It is no wonder that
several patrons of Caravaggio’s canvases rejected them
for this reason.
With recent revisions of art history, a woman named
Artemisia Gentileschi (1593?–1652?) has also joined
the ranks of important Baroque artists. Gentileschi,
the daughter of a painter, had the unusual opportunity
to study in her father’s studio. She is particularly
known for her remarkable adaptation of Carravaggio’s
techniques. Her works include self-portraits and
paintings of Old Testament women.
The most important Baroque artist, Gianlorenzo
Bernini (1598–1680), the son of a sculptor, was a child
prodigy who received recognition from the Pope at
age seventeen. Bernini did his most significant work
in sculpture, but he was also a talented architect,
painter, and draftsman. He worked as a designer in the
theater, and many of his works reflect the influence
of his theatrical background. His most important
masterpiece, the Ecstasy of Saint Teresa (1647–52),
is set into the altar of the Cornaro Chapel. The space
includes a concealed stained-glass window that bathes
the figure of the saint in dramatic gold lighting, as if
she were on a stage. Bernini treated his medium in
a new way as well. He did not adhere to the classical
calm and natural flow of drapery around the figure that
had been used in the past. Instead, Bernini pushed the
use of marble to new limits and tried to make stone
look like real fabric and even clouds.
The importance of the Baroque style extended beyond
Italy. In Flanders, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640)
established a huge workshop and produced works of
great energy and color that became models for many
artists. In the mid-seventeenth century, Rembrandt
van Rijn (1606–69), a Dutch artist, created some
of the best-known works from the Baroque period.
Rembrandt is recognized not only as a painter and
printmaker, but also as one of the greatest draftsmen
ever. Perhaps his best-known work is The Night Watch
(1642), more properly known as Sortie of Captain
Banning Cocq’s Company of the Civic Guard. Like
many other group portraits of the time, each member
of the company depicted paid a certain sum to be
included in the painting. Rembrandt chose to break
with tradition and grouped the members of the
company in a way that gave more attention to some
members than to others. This break with tradition, as
well as other problems in his life, ultimately caused
the decline of his career. Though Rembrandt died
in poverty, the self-portraits of his later years are
considered to be some of the greatest studies of the
inner life of the sitter ever to be painted.
It might be argued that the Baroque period reached
its peak in France. There, Louis XIV had come to
power, and his long reign was marked by a blossoming
of French culture. Louis XIV united all of France
and built a lavish palace at Versailles beginning in
1669. The palace and its grounds covered about two
thousand acres and included various grand chateaux
and gardens. There was a stable, capable of housing
hundreds of horses, and a grand orangerie, or
greenhouse, for the king’s orange trees. Eventually
there was also a zoo and a system of fountains and
waterfalls that included a grand canal large enough
for the staging of mock sea battles. The opulence
and power of this “sun king,” around whom the
world of the court revolved, became a model that
contemporaneous monarchs tried to emulate.
An important feature of Louis XIV’s court that was to
influence art well into the nineteenth century was the
system of choosing and supporting artists called the
Salon. This annual exhibition established a set of rules
for judging art that is still influential in the art world
today. It was also under the rule of Louis XIV that the
Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture, often
referred to simply as the “Academy,” was established,
and it soon came to be a means for imposing aesthetic
standards and principles of taste.
To the south, the Spanish court of King Philip IV of
Spain tried to emulate the court of France, and his
court painter, Diego Velázquez (1599–1660), was
a contemporary of Bernini. Velázquez’s method of
building his figures from patches of color, rather than
starting from a drawing, became a model for many
later artists. In fact, Velázquez’s work had an influence
on the movement we call Impressionism.
Rococo, Neoclassicism, and
Romanticism
While the Rococo style might be seen as an extension
of the Baroque period, it is quite different in form and
content. Whereas the Baroque aimed to arouse grand
emotions, Rococo works were celebrations of gaiety,
romance, and the frivolity of the grand life at court,
particularly the court at Versailles. The emphasis was
on light-hearted decoration with the use of gold and
pastel colors.
Three artists who excelled at capturing the elegance
and wit so valued by their aristocratic patrons are
considered the greatest masters of the Rococo style.
Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684–1721) was the leader of
a new generation and the innovator of a new genre
of painting called the fête galante. Paintings of this
genre generally depicted members of the nobility in
elegant contemporary dress enjoying leisure time
in the countryside. François Boucher (1703–70) was
influenced by Watteau’s delicate style. He became
the favorite painter of Madame Pompadour, mistress
to Louis XV, and his works often transformed the
characters of classical myth into scenes of courtly
gallantry, with an emphasis on nubile nudes. Jean-
Honoré Fragonard (1732–1806) was also promoted by
Madame Pompadour. Fragonard studied with Boucher,
and his works strongly reflect Boucher’s influence.
The Revolution of 1789 in France ushered in an era
of great change throughout Europe, and the idea of a
democratic republic ruled by and for the people was
reflected in the artwork of the time. In an attempt to
hearken back to the democratic ideals of the ancient
world, art of this period demonstrated a revival of
interest in the art of classical Greece and Rome. This
style, called Neoclassicism, emerged in the decades
leading up to the Revolution and was also influenced
by Enlightenment philosophy. The Neoclassical style,
a direct challenge to the Rococo and its associations
with the aristocracy, is epitomized in the work of
Jacques Louis David (1748–1825), whose paintings,
such as the Oath of the Horatii (1784), illustrated
republican virtues. Following the Revolution, David
joined members of the new government as the master
of ceremonies for the grand revolutionary mass rallies.
Later he became a dedicated painter to Napoleon
Bonaparte, and in this capacity he painted large
propagandistic canvases that would seem to undermine
his earlier revolutionary ideals. A closer investigation
of his work and his career reveals the complicated
world of an artist and his patrons. The work of David’s
pupil, Jean Dominique Ingres (1780–1867), shows the
sharp outlines, unemotional figures, careful geometric
composition, and rational order that are hallmarks of
the Neoclassical style.
Ingres’s rival, Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863), was a
proponent of Romanticism. This style hearkened back
to the emotional emphasis of the Baroque and had
similar characteristics, though the subject matter was
different. Whereas Neoclassical works emphasized
line, order, and a cool detachment, Romantic painting
tended to be highly imaginative and was characterized
by an emotional and dreamlike quality—the Romantics
favored feeling over reason. Romantic works are
also characterized by their incorporation of exotic or
melodramatic elements and often took awe-inspiring
natural wonders as their subject matter. Delacroix’s
works are characteristic of the Romantic movement in
that they centered on exotic themes and included foreign
settings, violence involving animals, and historical
subject matter. Théodore Gericault (1791–1824) and
William Blake (1757–1827) were also important
Romantic artists.