Social Influences
Outline the Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)
Social influence theory is the theory that the real or implied presence of others changes a person’s behaviour, attitudes, or beliefs.
Helps explain how people respond to social pressure
Shows why people conform to group norms and expectations
Define Compliance
When a person changes their behaviour to gain reward or avoid punishment
Outline the features of Compliance
Weakest form of social influence
Only last when reward/punishment present
Temporary change in public behaviour but inner beliefs stay same
Define Identification
When a person changes behaviour to fit in with a group or to copy someone they admire.
Behaviour and attitudes change because they want to belong or be liked
Outline the features of Identification and factors that affect
Features
Stronger than compliance but not permanent
Lasts only while person values the group or relationship
Temporary change in public behaviour and private beliefs that can fade when influence is lost
Factors
Desire for belongingness
Admiration for group/person
Need for social validation
Define Internalisation
When a person genuinely accepts a group’s beliefs, values or behaviours as their own.
Outline the features of Internalisation and factors that affect
Features
Strongest form of social influence
Behaviour and attitudes not just copied but become part of person’s own values
Long-lasting influence, even when group no longer around
Factors
Trusted and respected sources
Prolonged exposure
Sense of personal relevance
Explain the strengths of Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)
Testable + observable
Can be studied experiments
effects can be observed + measured - give empirical evidence
Real world applications
Explain how social influence shape behaviour in therapy settings
Every day life → peer pressure, following social norms, advertising
Value of theory
Help psychologists understand why people conform
Provide insight into how attitudes and behaviour can be changed
Explain the limitations of Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)
Needs detailed observation: In order for the model to be applied, psychologists must carefully observe behaviour and social interactions
Not universal: Does not explain all changes in attitudes
→ learning new skill in social setting is not social influence
Focus: Mainly explains how attitudes and behaviours are influenced by group pressure/admired individual but not social learning situations
Explain the application of Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)
Educational policies: Universities use Social Influence theory to guide behaviour
Identification + Internalisation
→ Students are assigned experienced lecturers as mentors
→ Mentor provide advice, support + guidance, encouraging students to adapt positive behaviour + values
Compliance
→ Assessment policies include consequences for plagiarism/cheating
→ Students follow rules to avoid punishment, even if they don’t fully agree
Explain the contributions to psychology of Social influence theory (Kelman, 1958)
Helps design strategies that influence behaviour both through belonging and through rules.
Define obedience
When an individual or group behaves in a certain way on the order or rules set down by a figure of authority.
Define authority
Person or organisation having political/administrative power and control
Describe the factors that influence authority figures
Perceived expertise: possess specialised knowledge of skills are seen as experts
Individuals follow their directive as they assume expert authority’s knowledge will lead to better outcomes
Social status: Respect + obey higher social status to maintain social order + harmony
Institutional power: Formal power derived from positions
Describe factors that influence whether a person obeys an authority figure
Proximity to authority: Physically closer = more likely to obey
Legitimacy of authority figure: Seen as knowledgable, competent, or with legitimate position of power = more like to obey
Peer pressure: Comply due to fear of social rejection, criticism, ridcule from peers, desire to belong
Consequence of disobedience: comply BC fear punishment/negative outcomes for non-compliance
Cultural norms + upbringing: some cultures highly value authority, some accept questioning
List the common reasons why people obey.
Want reward
Want to avoid negative consequences of disobeying
Believe authority is legitimate
Justify behaviour by assigning responsibility to authority rather than themselves
Define expected behaviour as routine
Don’t want to offend authority
Obey easy commands first then feel compelled to obey more & more difficult commands
State the aim of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
To see how large an electric shock participants would give to a helpless man when ordered to.
State the variables of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
IV: None
DV: Extent to which participants obeyed experiment (measured by voltage administered)
Describe the participants of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
40 males (20-50 y/o)
Respond to newspaper ad (self-selection sampling)
Paid participation
Believed that they were participating in a memory experiment (deception)
Describe the procedure of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
Subjects told that they were participating in a study on learning and memory
Each participant received the role of the “teacher” and the confederate wa given the role of the “learner”
The learner was not actually shocked but acted as though he was in pain
The experimenter (an authority figure in a lab coat) urged the “teacher” to continue if they hesitated
Outline the key findings of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
All participants administered at least 300 volts
65% of participants obeyed orders all the way through until administering the maximum of 450 volts
14 participants eventually refused to obey
Outline the strengths & limitations of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
Strengths
Due to standardised procedure, the study was able to be replicated
Limitations
Participants did not give informed consent as the true purpose of the study was not disclosed to them (deception)
Participants indicated they did not want to continue with the experiment, but were told to continue therefore right to withdrawal was violated
Many participants experienced intense stress and believed they harmed people which caused psychological harm
Debrief was included but many researchers still claimed it was unethical
Poor generalisability (no women, limited ethnic background, etc.)
Describe the contributions of the Behavioural study of obedience (Milgram, 1963)
At the time of the study there was limited scientific research on how people react to authority figures therefore this inspired other researchers.
Define Conformity
The act of changing one’s behaviour to “fit in” with the people around them.
State and describe the factors affecting conformity
Normative influence
People conform BC want to be like the group and not stand out
Not necessarily same belief but disregard to fit in
Temporary change of behaviour, not private beliefs
BC Fear social reject
BC Peer pressure
Informational influence
People conform BC want to be correct + currently lack info needed to be sure of their opinion/belief
seek knowledge held by those in the group when deciding how to behave
Culture
Individualistic cultures value people standning out
Independence + self-reliant
Less likely to conform
Collectivist cultures: value the needs of the group
Conformity is more likely to be seen
Group size
3-5: ppl more likely to conform
5+: little impact on degree of conformity
Unanimity
All people agree about the same thing
More likely to conform to group decisions
Exert great pressure to conform
Define deindividuation
Process whereby people have reduced self-awareness and feel less inhibited in group situations
Loss of self-awareness
Loss of individuality + personal responsibility
Fosters responsiveness to group norms (good or bad)
Describe 2 causes of deindividuation
Anonymity: people become anonymous and not individual but part of a group
Shift in attention: self-awareness shifts away from self to group situation
List 3 ways to reduce deindividuation
Making people feel identifiable
Banning masks at riots
Displaying live audience footage during spirting matches
Define Social loafing
Tendency for individuals to reduce their effort when working in a group.
What is a factor that impacts the degree Social loafing?
Collectivist cultures place more value on groups than individuals therefore less social loafing occurs.
Describe 2 types of Social loafing
Sucker effect: an individual reduced their effort when working in a group after realising other group members are not putting in effort
Free-rider effect: an individual reduced their effort when working in a group because they believe other group members can successfully complete the task without them
List ways to reduce Social loafing
Increase task structure + specialised roles to make each individual accountable for their own output
Smaller groups
Direct + immediate feedback
Group cohesion (more cohesion reduces social loafing)
State the aim of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
To explore the conditions that would cause individuals to either resist or succumb to group pressures.
State the variables of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
IV: Whether there was group pressure caused by unanimity
DV: Level of conformity measured by the number of errors made
Describe the participants of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
87 male college students
50 experimental
37 control
Describe the procedure of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
Sat around table (always in 6th position)
Participant unaware 6 other students were confederates
All students told that they were taking part in a visual discrimination task
Shown series of cards with standard line on left and comparison lines on right
Control group = only participant + experimenter
After experiment, individually interviewed + debriefs
made aware of purpose of study, role they played + confederates played
Outline the key findings of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
Different reasons for conforming provided by the participants:
A small group experienced a distortion of perception + conformed but did not believe they did
Most conformed because they believed that the group was correct and their own perception was faulty (informative influence)
Some conformed to avoid standing out despite being sure that the group was incorrect (normative conformity)
Experimental:
37 participants (74%) conformed at least once
13 participants (26%) did not conform to any
Control:
Error rate was less than 0.7%
Outline the criticisms & limitations of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
Biased sample: all male college students of same age
Limited ability to generalise data to greater population
Participants embarrassed after finding out they conformed to majority
Breach participant right to be protected from psychological harm
Describe the contributions of the Line judgement task (Asch, 1951)
Provided insights into conditions which people conform and reasons for why people conform
Define Anti-social Behaviour
Voluntary, intentional behaviour designed to hurt or cause distress to another person physically or psychologically.
List some examples of antisocial behaviour
Describe the case that prompted social psychologists Latane and Darley to research why people are less likely to help in the presence of others.
Case Study - Kitty Genovese (1964)
28 y/o Female in New York
Attached outside her apartment
Neighbours heard scream and attacker running away
10 minutes later, stabbed her again + raped her
No one called the police until it was too late
38 witnesses
Due to this case, Psychologists Darley + Latane decided to study why people fail to help (Bystander Effect)
Describe the bystander effect
People are less likely to help in an emergency when otheres are present
Responsibility spread out
Negative correlation: More bystanders = less people help out
Describe audience inhibition
Failure to intervene in an emergency in the presence of others due to fear of being negatively judged
stronger in ambiguous situations
weaker when fewer people are around
fear of looking silly, being judged, personal safety, hurting someone
Describe diffusion of responsibility
Reduction in personal responsibility when in a group, resulting in an individual being less likely to act.
Describe cost benefit analysis
The weighing up of costs and reward before helping people.
Costs: Time, effort, danger, embarrassment, social disapproval
Rewards: Thanks, praise, feel good, avoid guilt
Describe the limitations of the Bystander Effect
There are many instances where bystanders are useful in an emergency and people do actually help out
Therefore the presence of others is not always detrimental to prosocial behaviour
List the steps of Bystander Intervention in order
Notice the Incident/event/emergency
Audience Inhibition
Social Influence
Diffusion of Responsibility
Cost Benefit Analysis
Provide help/do not provide help
Define Group Think
Group members conform to make unanimous decisions without using critical reasoning.
Based on common desire to not upset group balance
Describe why group think is harmful
Group think may develop harmful stereotypes by considering own beliefs to be correct.
→ a leader may believe that they are right because no one challenges their ideas and only reinforce their point of view
Group think can cause anti-social behaviour when group members unquestioningly follow orders from a leader that involve physically or psychologically harming others
Define bullying
The most common form of anti-social behaviour is bullying - the purposeful use of a difference in power to repeatedly cause physical, psychological, or social harm.
State the aim of the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
To observe the behaviour of bystanders in an emergency.
State the variables of the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
IV: Whether participants were alone, in a group with other participants, or in a group with confederates.
DV: Time participants stayed in a room before leaving to report smoke
Describe the participants the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
87 male college students
Convenience sampling
Describe the procedure the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
Participants were phoned and asked to participate in an interview about the disadvantages of attending an urban university (deception).
The volunteer participants were divided into the three conditions.
Sitting alone, sitting with 2 other participants, sitting with 2 confederates.
For each trial the participant was sat in a waiting room (with a one-way mirror for observation) to fill out a preliminary questionnaire.
As the participants completed the questionnaire the experimenter released a stream of titanium dioxide particles through a vent in the wall producing what looked like smoke from a fire.
Confederates were instructed to momentarily take notice of the smoke, then resume filling out their questionnaire. They were instructed to avoid conversation with the participant .
The experiment was concluded once the participant left the room to report the smoke, or 6 minutes after the participant noticed the smoke.
After the participants were asked by the interviewer if they had any difficulty completing the questionnaire.
Outline the key findings of the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
75% of participants who were alone reported smoke
10% of participants who were in a group with confederates reported smoke
38% of participants who were in a group with other participants reported smoke
During the final interview, participants stated they took little notice of other in the room
Did not admit/not realise other people in the room influenced their behaviour
Most explained that they didn’t act because they didn’t believe that there was an emergency
Outline the criticisms & limitations of the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
Low ecological validity
Confederate told not to respond to smoke which is unrealistic as individuals are more likely to respond to smoke and share attitudes with the group
Lack of Generalisability to the greater population
Acting calm during stressful situation is socially acceptable in some cultures
Results may have differed if the experiment was done on a sample that included females or other cultures
Participants right of protection from harm violated
Titanium dioxide is a carcinogen that could cause burns.
Describe the contributions of the Smoke Filled Room Experiment (Latane and Darly, 1968)
Results encouraged further research to explore the relationship between bystanders
(previous focused on relationship between bystander & victim)
Understanding how presence of others in an emergency affects the bystander’s behaviour can reduce the negative outcomes in such events
Define Prosocial behaviour
Voluntary, intentional actions that promote social acceptance, and benefits society and its members.
Describe factors influencing pro-social behaviour: Altruism
Altruism is the act of helping others without expecting any personal reward. It is motivated by the desire to help others rather than oneself.
Describe factors influencing pro-social behaviour: Reciprocity Principle
The reciprocity principle is the social norm where a person feels obligated to return a favour to a person that does something for them.
Describe factors influencing pro-social behaviour: Social responsibility
Social responsibility is the theory that individuals are accountable for acting in a way that benefits society.
Those with greater social responsibility tend to perform more prosocial behaviour than those with less social responsibility.
List & describe factors influencing pro-social behaviour: Personal characteristics
Empathy
Empathy is the ability to sense or share thoughts or feelings of another person.
More empathetic individuals tend to be more pro-social as they can view the perspective of the other person in distress.
Mood
Those with low mood are less likely to help others
Those with a positive mood have more prosocial behaviour as they want to maintain their positive mood
Competence
If one believes they can help others, they are more inclined to help.
Define Help and Helping
Help: Make something easier/possible for a person by offering one’s services/resources
Helping: Voluntary actions intended to help others
Explain the factors to why people help
Biological Basis
Survival of a specials depends on humans assisting each other therefore helping is an instinctive and innate response
By helping families over strangers, you ensure the survival of your own family
Learned prosocial behaviour
Since childhood, we have been taught to act display prosocial behaviour through:
Rewarding prosocial acts (e.g. sharing)
Instruct kids to be helpful
Allow kids to watch a person engage in helpful tasks
Aware of need to help from 6 years old
Altruism
Altruism is the act of helping others without expecting any personal reward. It is motivated by the desire to help others rather than oneself where individuals often feel empathy.
Personal Benefits
An increase in self-image and move
Reciprocity: Help now, person may help in future
Internet Fame
Acts of kindness become social media trend
People in need are exploited by Youtubers that post videos of helping for profit
Prosocial behaviour but NOT Altruistic