Decolonization Notes

Decolonization: Negotiated Independence

  • Two Primary Paths to Decolonization:
    • Negotiated Independence
    • Armed Struggle

India: Negotiated Independence

  • British Investment in India:
    • Britain's most valuable colony.
    • Invested heavily in infrastructure (railroads, seaports, urban development).
    • Designed to enrich the British Empire, not India.
  • Emergence of Indian Nationalism:
    • Modernization led to a growing, educated middle class.
    • Increased desire for self-rule influenced by nationalism.
  • Indian National Congress (1885):
    • Founded to petition the British government for greater Indian involvement in policy.
    • Petitions largely ignored by the British.
  • Indian Participation in World War I:
    • Millions of Indians fought for Britain, expecting greater self-rule in return.
    • Hopes largely unmet, leading to discontent.
  • Amritsar Massacre:
    • British troops killed hundreds of peaceful Indian protesters.
    • Nearly erupted into violent resistance.
  • Mahatma Gandhi's Leadership:
    • Led the imperial resistance movement with nonviolent resistance.
  • Limited Authority Transferred:
    • British government transferred some authority to Indians in the 1920s due to increasing pressure.
  • World War II and Independence:
    • Millions of Indian troops fought for Britain again.
    • Post-war, India demanded independence.
    • Britain, weakened by the war and facing pro-independence politicians, recognized India's independence in 1947.
  • Partition of India:
    • India's independence was negotiated and peaceful on paper, the establishment of India as a new state was not peaceful.
    • Muslims, fearing marginalization, formed the Muslim League and demanded a separate state.
    • Partition created Pakistan for India’s Muslim minority.
    • Hindus fled south, Muslims fled north, leading to violence.
    • Hundreds of thousands (possibly over a million) died.

Ghana (Gold Coast): Negotiated Independence

  • British Colony:
    • Independence movement led by Kwame Nkrumah in 1947.
  • Circumstances Similar to India:
    • Declining public support for imperialism in Britain.
    • Britain focused on post-war rebuilding.
  • Independence Achieved:
    • Negotiations led to the creation of Ghana in 1957.

Decolonization: Armed Struggle

  • Deciding Factor:
    • Size of the European settler population in the colony.
    • Large European populations resisted decolonization, leading to violence.

Algeria: Armed Struggle

  • French Colonies in Africa:
    • France negotiated independence with Morocco and Tunisia without bloodshed.
    • Resisted independence for Algeria due to a large French settler population.
  • National Liberation Front (NLF):
    • Formed in 1954 by Arab and Berber Muslims.
    • Launched violent attacks on French troops and civilians.
  • French Response:
    • Brutal suppression, targeting civilians and committing human rights abuses.
  • Resolution:
    • War continued until 1962 when President Charles de Gaulle negotiated Algeria's independence.

Angola: Armed Struggle

  • Portuguese Colony:
    • Three Angolan political groups united to oppose colonial rule by the 1950s.
  • Outbreak of Violence:
    • Caused by inhumane treatment of farmers by the Portuguese.
    • Both sides engaged in violence without progress.
  • Independence Achieved:
    • A coup in Portugal in 1974 allowed Angola to negotiate independence, granted in 1975.
  • Post-Independence Civil War:
    • The three Angolan ethnic groups (communist and anti-communist factions) fell into civil war to gain power.
    • Became a proxy war in the larger Cold War context.

Colonial Boundaries and Post-Independence Conflicts

  • Problem of Colonial Boundaries:
    • Imperial powers drew boundaries without regard for ethnic and religious groups.
    • Boundaries either brought rival groups together or split existing groups.
    • Led to violent power struggles after independence.

Nigeria: Civil War

  • Independence from Britain:
    • Negotiated in 1960.
  • Civil War (1967):
    • Conflict over control of newly independent Nigeria.
  • Igbo Secession:
    • Igbo people (westernized Christians in the south) tried to secede and form Biafra.
  • Northern Resistance:
    • The northern government resisted secession due to oil-rich lands.
  • Outcome:
    • The north won in 1970, establishing a united Nigeria.
  • Legacy:
    • Colonial boundaries continue to cause tension in Africa and elsewhere.