EARTH SCI _ MIDTERMS (1)

During chemical reactions, it releases energy that often occurs on their own, or spontaneously.

• Energy that is needed to get a reaction started
• Also the difference between required energy and the energy of the reactants

• Is an example of an energy- releasing reaction in which hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water vapor.
• The energy is released in the form of heat, and sometimes when hydrogen gas blasts, light and sound will occur

• The ability to do work or cause change and is required for life processes.
• An energy resource is something that can produce heat, power life, move objects, or produce electricity.

Law of Conservation of Energy

• “Energy can neither be created nor destroyed”
• only converted from one energy to another.
• This means that a system always has the same amount of energy, unless it’s added from the outside

• Renewable energy is energy that comes from a source that won't run out.
• They are natural and self-replenishing, and usually have a low- or zero-carbon footprint.

• Energy from the sun
• Light and heat by the sun
• The energy comes from the center of the sun where hydrogen atoms combine to form helium in a process called nuclear fusion
• Plants uses the solar energy provided as light during photosynthesis
• We use the solar energy provided as heat to warm our water and homes
• We use the solar energy provided as light by burning it into electricity

Photovoltaic Cells

• Cells that collect light from the sunLight may be reflected, absorbed, or mat passes through the cell, some of the energy absorbed can move electrons in the solar cell material which creates electricity.
• Solar cells are connected together to create solar panels

Concentrating Solar power technology

Curved reflectors are used to direct the sun’s energy to a single point in a tower. The heat produced at this point is used to heat a fluid. The steam produced turns into a turbine that produces electricity.

Solar Heating

Can be as simple as using a window facing the sun to heat a bedroom. Solar collectors can be used to heat hot water pipes

• Came from the greek word geo, meaning Earth, and therme meaning Heat
• Energy from the earth’s heat
• Geothermal facts come from the heat within the earth
• The outermost layer of the earth, the insulating crust is broken into pieces called plates
• These plates drift apart and push against each other in a process called plate tectonics
• Plate tectonic can cause the crust to become cracked or thinned, allowing plumes of magma to rise up into the crust
• The magma can reach the surface (volcanoes) but most stays the surface as geothermal heat
• The steam and heat is used to drive turbines in electrical power plants
• The hottest geothermal regions are found along major plate boundaries where earthquakes and volcanoes are concentrated
• One of the operational geothermal power stations is found in the provinces of Albay and Sorsogon in the Philippines
• This is the BacMan Geothermal power plant and is operated by Energy Development Corporation
• The name BacMan is named after Bacon and Manito which are municipalities where it is located

• Energy from the flow of water’
• Hydropower is energy that comes from the force of moving water
• Can come from anywhere water can flow from high ground to low ground
• Hydropowerplant cause no pollution because they don’t burn fuel
• Capture the energy of falling water
• Turbine turns kinetic energy to mechanical energy then a generator converts the mechanical energy into a electrical energy

• Wind power is a source of solar energy
• Cause by uneven heating, terrain and bodies of water on earth
• Used for grinding grain, pumping water generating electricity
• Historical windmills were used for boats, pumping water and producing food
• Starts from kinetic form to mechanical energy or to the electromagnetic form

• Energy from burning organic or living matter
• Biomass is any organic matter that can be used as an energy source. It is any carbon-based biologically derived fuel
• This includes woods, crops, seaweed, and animal waste
• This plays a vital role in the country’s energy supply
• Our country has abundant source of biomass resources

• Does not produce pollutants because it contains little sulfur and nitrogen

1. Wood and Agriculture

• Wood accounts to 71% of biomass energy

1. Landfill

• A substance called methane gas is produced as waste
• Methane is more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide

1. Anaerobic Digesters

• Airtight containers or pits, waste placed in this containers were broken down by enzymes

• These are natural resources that cannot be made or grown at a scale comparable to its consumption. This supports 84% of earth’s energy consumption

• Used in a small number of power plants
• Nuclear Fission uses radioactive elements to create energy like uranium
• The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant (BNPP) was a focal point for anti-clear protests

• They cannot be replenish in a short period of time
• These fossil fuels are solid formed in several stages
• Land plants that lived 300-400 million yeas sago
• It is subjected to intense heat and pressure over many years
• Made up of mostly carbon and little sulfur
• Coal is used to generate about 62% of the world's electricity consumption

Oil and Natural Gas

• Accumulation of dead marine organisms on the ocean floor covered by sediments.
• The muddy rock gradually formed rock (shale) contain dispensed oil.
• While sandstone formed on top of shale, this oil pools begun to form.
• Natural gas forms on top of oil.
• Methane, primary component of natural gas

Coal

• Our country is blessed with larger coal reserves.
• Black or brownish black rock that can be burned.
• Used as fuel
• Coal-fired power plant in Mariveles, Bataan (Mariveles Coal-Fired Power Plant)

Natural Gas

• Fossil fuels many years ago
• Buried and exposed to heat
• Combustible and burn more cleanly than other energy sources
• San Lorenzo CCGT in the city of Batangas

Oil and Diesel (Petroleum)

• Formed from remains of tiny sea animals and plants that died million years ago.
• The organic material was broken down into hydrogen and carbon atoms and a sponge like rock was formed, full of oil.
• Used to provide useful necessities for daily activities of people.

Earth is sometimes called “water planet” as two thirds of the planet’s surface is covered with water

• AKA: Hydrologic cycle
• Shows critical interrelationships among different parts of the earth’s system
• Gigantic worldwide system powered by energy from the sun
• Adding or subtracting heat makes the cycle work

EVAPORATION

• Involves adding energy to molecules of a liquid so that it becomes a gas in which molecules are further apart.

CONDENSATION

• The reverse process in which molecules of a gas give up energy get closer together and become liquid.
• Heat taken away from water vapor = condenses

PRECIPITATION

• Any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity
• Includes: drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, garupel, and hail

• Large continuous body of salt water
• Covers nearly 72% of the earth’s surface and is divided into different and major oceans as well as smaller areas

1. PACIFIC OCEAN

• Largest ocean
• Covers about one-third of the global surface
• Its area of 166 million sq km is larger than the land area of the whole world

1. ATLANTIC OCEAN

• Second largest

1. INDIAN OCEAN

• Third largest

1. ARCTIC OCEAN

• Smallest of the world’s four oceans

1. SOUTHERN OCEAN

• Encircles the continent of Antarctica, and is a part or extension of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian ocean

• Formed due to separation of coastal oceans by various island groups
• Are commonly small, shallow, and near to the continental areas or land
• Made up of salts, sulfates, carbonates

• Constitutes around 3% of water on the earth’s surface
• It is in the form of ice caps or glaciers (1.8%), groundwater (0.63%) and surface water such as rivers and lakes (0.01%)

RIVERS

• Large natural stream of flowing water in single channel towards the sea, a lake or oceans

STREAMS

• Natural flow of water which is smaller than a river

Is water that seeps into the ground and in rocks, sediments, and soil, beneath fills up the open spaces the Earth’s surface

Zone of Saturation

• Zone where all the pore spaces are filled with water

Zone of Aeration

• The zone where pore scapes contain air and water

Water Table

• Surface that separates the two zones

• Porosity is the percentage of the total volume of rock or

sediment that consists of pore spaces

• Permeability is the ability of a material to transmit a fluid
• Groundwater moves by twisting and turning through interconnecting small openings
• The smaller the pore spaces, the slower the water moves

A lake is depression in land surface surrounded by land area, then filled with water

• It may become dry if there is no possibility of rainfalls, on the contrary, continuous rainfalls will cause too much depression and stress in land areas, making the basin wider and deeper which in turn more water supply is possible

1. Domestic- drinking, cooking, bathing, washing and other household needs, gardening and animal husbandry
2. Agriculture- Irrigation for producing crops
3. Power generation- producing electrical or mechanical power
4. Industrial- producing consumer industrial products
5. Aquaculture- propagating fishes, shrimps, crabs, etc. for commercial purpose
6. Livestock raising- raising herds or flocks of animals for commercial purpose

• Means that the demand for water exceeds the available supply
• An important aspect of water scarcity is water quality
• Water quality may be described in terms of pollutants present in water

It is the reduction of quaILLUSTRATIONr

Farming, forest clearing, road building and mining produce soil particles that when added to water, make water turbid, bury aquatic habitats and degrade water quality

PEDOLOGY- study of soil; their kinds & characteristics

SOIL- Mixture of weathered rock fragments, mineral grains, organic debris and even the presence of moisture

REGOLITH- Made of rock fragments of minerals and the layer of unconsolidated rocky material covering bedrock.

PEDOGENESIS- a process of the development of soil

1. TOPSOIL

• Contains small rock particles and decayed matter called humus

1. SUBSOIL

• Beneath the topsoil and made up mostly of pebbles

1. BEDROCK/PARENT ROCK

• Formed when solid rocks breaks up and poorest material in the soil

• The process of soil formation happens from the surface downward
• As such, soil zones or layers known as soil horizon are formed as time passes
• The arrangement of these horizons is known as soil profile,
• The extent and development of soil profile vary depending on different environments

O HORIZON- consists of organic matter at stages of decomposition. The partly decomposed organic matter is called humus

A HORIZON- consists of minerals and hummus, O+A make up TOPSOIL

E HORIZON- light colored material that contains little organic material. It is the zone of eluviation and leaching

• Eluviation is the washing of fine components
• Leaching is the depletion of soluble materials

B HORIZON- zone of accumulation, it is also called subsoil. Horizon O, A, E, B constitute the true soil

E and B horizon make up the subsoil.

C HORIZON- characterized by partially altered parent material

R HORIZON- also known as the bedrock or parent rock

ILLUSTRATION:

Types of Soil made up of 3 particles: sandy, silty, clay, loamy, peaty, chalky, and alkaline

Sandy- Largest particle found in soil. Rough & gritty. Do not have many nutrients, dries fast. Silty- medium size particle in soil. Smooth and Powdery when dry. Slippery when wet. Har for water and air to pass when packed in a crust Clay- smallest particle found in soil. Smooth & hard when dry. Sticky when wet. Holds many nutrients. Does not allow air or water to pass Loamy- Mix of sandy, silty, clay and a lil humus Breaks up easily and holds moisture and nutrients while allowing air and water to pass Peaty- Dark brown soil. Saturated with water and rich in organic material. Mostly found in swamps. Good for plants Chalky- Found over limestone beds and deep chalk deposits. Prone to dryness. Blocks nutrients = not good for plants Alkaline- Has pH above 7 and relatively concentration of hydrogen ions. Mostly found in Western soils.

1. Parent Material - can be bedrock or a layer of unconsolidated deposits. It influences soil’s weathering and soil’s fertility
2. Time- soil is influenced by the length of time that processes have been operating. The longer it’s forming the thicker it is
3. Climate- most influential control of soil. Temperature and precipitation exert the strongest impact on soil formation.
4. Plants and Animals- Abundance of organisms furnish organic matter to the soil. It adds important nutrients to the soil
5. Slope of the Land- Impacts on the mount erosion and water content of the soi. Steep slopes are poorly developed.

• Human activities generate wastes as people make use of various materials and resources in everyday life. These wastes may be classified as solid waste, liquid waste or gaseous waste.

• Solid waste management in the Philippines is governed by the Republic Act 9003, also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000. It provides systematic comprehensive, and ecological solid waste management policies that ensure the protection of human health and the environment and maximizes the utilization of valuable resources, among others.

• Agricultural waste includes wastes generated from the planting and harvest of crops, trimming, or pruning of plants and wastes or runoff materials from farms and fields, which may include leaves, twigs, branches, roots, discarded fruits, fertilizer containers, pesticides and other related materials.
• Discarded household, commercial, institutional, and industrial wastes may include leftover food, kitchen, residues, cupboards and papers, bottles, and other containers, electronic devices, and furniture, among others. Solid wastes cause land pollution.

COMPOSTING

• Refers to the controlled decomposition of organic matter by microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) into humus- like products.

LANDFILL

• Refers to a waste disposal site, designed, constructed, operated and maintained so that the potential environmental impact of the operation in the facility is controlled.

INCINERATION

• Is the combustion of waste in the presence of oxygen, converting it into carbon dioxide, water vapor and ash

LIQUID WASTE

• Are waste that originate from industrial, commercial, mining and agricultural operations from community and household activities.

• Sewage from septic tanks carry disease- causing microorganisms
• Toxic substances are harmful to aquatic life. Fish and other aquatic life contaminated by toxic substances eaten by humans can cause sickness or death.
• Liquid wastes containing disease- carrying bacteria may cause gastroenteritis, diarrhea and cholera.

• Utilization of different sources of energy contributes to the generation of gaseous wastes. Gaseous wastes may cause air pollution. They include the oxides which include the following.

• Hydrocarbons come from transportation vehicles.
• Some of the gaseous wastes are called greenhouse gases because they are capable of warming the earth by absorbing and emitting infrared radiation
• The republic act 8749, also known as clean air act 1999, governs the management of gaseous wastes.
• It provides a framework for sustainable development and environmental protection of pollution rather than its control and the promotion of a system of accountability for the citizenry for increased compliance

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

• are responsible for shaping the Earth’s surface and forming the geologic features that are seen on the surface of the Earth.
• These processes begin in microscopic spaces, cracks, joints, faults, fractures, lava vesicles and other rock cavities.

WEATHERING

• the process by which rocks break into smaller pieces whether physically (disintegration) or chemically (decomposition).

• the breakdown of rock into smaller pieces by physical means. (ice, wind, water, gravity, plants, animals).
• There is no change in chemical composition of rocks.

EXAMPLES OF MECHANICAL WEATHERING

FROST WEDGING

• a process in which water freezes in a crack of a rock and then the expansion edges the rock apart

PRESSURE-RELEASE

• a process wherein tectonic forces lift deeply buried rocks close to the surface and then erosion removes overlying rock, removing the pressure and causing rock to expand and fracture

ABRASION

• a process that consists of grinding and rounding of rock surfaces by friction and impact caused by waves and glaciers.

ORGANIC ACTIVITY

• a process in which a crack in a rock is expanded by plant roots or broken by animals and human activities.

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION

• occurs when temperature changes rapidly, causing the surface of the rock to heat or cool

• the process by which rocks break down as a result of chemical reactions.
• It decomposes rocks through a chemical change in its minerals.
• Some of its causes are oxidation, leaching, hydration, and carbonation.

EXAMPLES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

DISSOLUTION

• a process in which a mineral or rock dissolves in water forming a solution like halite (rock salt) dissolved in water.

HYDROLYSIS

• a process in which a mineral reacts with water to form a new mineral that has water as part of its crystal structure like feldspar to clay.

OXIDATION

• a process in which a mineral decomposes when it reacts with oxygen like the rusting of iron.

EROSION

• Erosion is the process of transporting weathered sediment by agents of erosion and to different places.
• Weathered materials are removed from the original site and transported away by natural agents.

AGENTS OF EROSION

• Running water is considered as the major and universal agent of soil erosion.
• Other causes are gravity, human activities and animals.

• Mass wasting is the mass movement of rocks and soil.
• It is the step that follows weathering.
• The driving force of mass wasting is gravity.
• Mass wasting is triggered and controlled by the following factors:

1. Water- When the pores in sediments become filled with water, the cohesion among particles is destroyed, allowing them to slide past one another with relative ease. It also adds weight to a mass of water causing the material to slide or move downslope.
2. Over Steepened Slopes- triggers movements of unconsolidated granular materials. It produces unstable slopes and mass movements in cohesive soils, regolith and bedrock.
3. Vegetation removal- Plants protect against erosion and contribute to the stability of slopes because their root systems binds soil and regolith together. When plants are removed or lacking, mass wasting is enhanced, especially if slopes are steep and water is plentiful.
4. Earthquakes- An earthquake and its aftershocks can dislodge enormous volumes of rocks and unconsolidated materials.

Rock Falls and Debris Falls

• occur when a piece of rock or mass of rocks becomes dislodged and moves at free fall along a steep cliff.

Landslides

• Asudden, fast movement of a cohesive mass of soil or rock. It occurs in two ways - translational and rotational.

Translational slides

• movement of mass along a well-defined surface

Rotational Slides

• occur when descending materials move along a concave-upward curved surface

FLOWS

• Flows may refer to slurry or granular flows.

Slurry flows

• are mixture of rocks and regolith containing 20 – 40% water and is considered as water-saturated flows.

Granular flows

• contain only 0 – 20% moisture and are not considered as water-saturated flows.

Creep

• is the gradual downhill movement of soil and regolith.

Mudflow

• is known as the rapid movement of earthflow possessing a higher water content.