Catholic Reformation Notes

Catholic Reformation

Background

The Catholic Reformation, also known as the Counter-Reformation, was the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation. It is often dated from the Council of Trent in 1545 to the conclusion of the Great Turkish War in 1699, but some academics believe it continued after that and is still ongoing. The medieval Church was quick to suppress any challenges to its authority. The Church aimed to reestablish the idea of ultimate, objective truth.

Church Authority

Saint Peter, considered the first pope, had a direct mandate from Jesus Christ as stated in Matthew 16:18–19. The medieval Church was viewed as the only legitimate spiritual authority for Christians. A hierarchy existed: pope, cardinals, bishops/archbishops, priests, and monastic orders. This hierarchy was intended to facilitate soul-saving but became corrupted by political involvement and the pursuit of power.

Truth vs. Opinion

The Counter-Reformation aimed to reestablish the idea of ultimate, objective truth. The Church argued that if anyone could interpret the Bible, there would be no objective truth, only opinion. Without a central spiritual authority, anyone could claim "truth." Academics cite the Catholic Church's current stance on social and cultural issues as evidence that the Counter-Reformation is still in progress, asserting that the Catholic Church is the only source of spiritual truth.

Loyola and Church Authority

Attempts by figures like Valla and Erasmus to reform the Church failed to bridge the gap between ecclesiastical authority and the people and did not stop clerical abuses. One abuse was the selling of indulgences, which promised to shorten time in purgatory and generated significant revenue for the Church.

Protestant Reformation

The Protestant Reformation began in Germany in 1517 with Martin Luther's 95 Theses. Huldrych Zwingli also started reforms in Switzerland. The Unam Sanctam in the early 14th century stated that there was no salvation outside the Church and everyone should be subject to the pope. By the 8th century, documents like The Donation of Constantine claimed the Church's authority exceeded that of monarchs.

Church's Disconnect with Populace

The European populace felt disconnected from the pope's decrees because they did not understand Latin, the language used in services. Poorly trained clergy, focused on personal comfort, widened the gap between Church leadership and congregations. Similar movements were sparked by Luther and Zwingli in other European countries by 1522. The Church attempted to suppress Luther but then debated reformers and wrote pamphlets to discredit them. These pamphlets baecame bestsellers and helped the Reformation gain support, promising a new order of equality.

Social Unrest

The Knights' Revolt (1522–1533) and the German Peasants' War (1524–1525) show how the Reformation's message resonated with those marginalized by the Church and social hierarchy. Charles V called the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 to address these issues.

Augsburg Confession

At the Diet of Augsburg, the Protestants delivered the Augsburg Confession, and the Catholics responded with the Confutatio Augustana. Both sides rejected each other's confessions, solidifying opposing viewpoints.

Ignatius of Loyola

Ignatius of Loyola, a Basque soldier, had visions during his recovery from battle wounds in 1521 and felt called to serve the Church. In 1534, he began studying theology and, with six others, vowed to protect the Catholic Church against heresy, preach universal salvation, and fix the Church's flaws. In 1539, Pope Paul III permitted Loyola to form the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), organized like a military hierarchy. Loyola supported Johann Eck's argument against Luther and Andreas Karlstadt that without a central spiritual authority to define "truth," any interpretation could be considered valid, meaning there was no truth, only opinion. Eck asserted that only the Church was qualified to interpret the Bible because it was complex and needed trained theologians to interpret and preach its message.

Rejecting the Protestant Claim

Anathema means to be condemned or cursed, in this case, excommunicated. The Council of Trent aimed to uphold Catholic theology, correct errors, and denounce Protestant doctrines. Protestant representatives were invited but could not vote on decrees. The Council refuted Luther's assertion that salvation came from faith alone and upheld the Church as the final arbiter of the Bible.

Luther's Argument

Luther dismissed the Church's assertion as a ploy to retain power, insisting one could be saved with only personal faith and the Bible. Loyola countered this by founding colleges and seminaries to train priests in biblical interpretation and ministry in line with Catholic doctrine that one was justified by obedience to Catholic teachings.

Modifications & Key Differences

Traditions such as the reverence of saints and relics, knowledge of the Eucharist, using Latin for Mass, and iconography/music in worship were modified (though not eliminated), as was the sale of indulgences.

The Council of Trent's reforms aimed to undermine Protestant criticism and highlight key differences between Catholic and Protestant interpretations of Christianity. The rejection of Luther's "faith alone" and "scripture alone" claims laid the foundation for the Catholic assertion that the Bible is not the only source for judging spiritual truth.

Church's Response

By 1545, there were numerous Protestant sects each claiming to adhere to "true Christianity." The Church responded that if they all claimed to be correct, none could be, whereas the Church, founded by Jesus Christ, could not be incorrect.

Philosophical Skepticism

The Jesuits used classical literature, particularly philosophical skepticism developed by Sextus Empiricus and based on the ideas of Pyrrho of Elis, to challenge Protestant claims of "faith alone" and "scripture alone." Pyrrho argued against forming judgments based on senses and not taking others' conclusions too seriously.

Empiricus' Argument

The Church quoted Empiricus, who stated, "To every argument an equal argument is opposed," asserting that Protestant claims were merely opinion. Empiricus argued that every debate is only opinion and cannot be objectively defined as being connected to “truth”.

Church's Rebuttal

The Church then posed the question,