Mussolini Unit
COMMAND TERMS
Analyze: fancy word for “why.”
Illustrate ONE argument
Could have several reasons
Defend/Determine/Justify: support the argument made.
Reasons, actions behind it, effects.
Evaluate: make an argument but include other arguments to strengthen your argument- prove it’s the best.
Pull from different contents
Answer “why” and “how.” What did the actions do to prove the argument I’m making?
To what extent: consider the merits of an argument with clear conclusions by supported and appropriate evidence and argument to prove a measurable change.
Change- increased/decreased, improved, shifted, caused, developed…
NO-NO VERBS
No form of TO-BE in ANY tense:
has
had been
this was
have
was
were
No words that don’t have a clear measurable:
impacted
influenced
affected
FEEL
IMPORTANT ESSAY NOTES
They’re comprised of THREE paragraphs:
Introduction- has only the thesis sentence that expresses the formulated argument. *ONLY ONE SENTENCE
Thesis- a singular argumentative statement that addresses THREE keys points.
Rules of thesis writing:
Use ACTIVE VOICE.
ex- The US’s desire for revenge caused the dropping of the atomic bombs. NOT- The dropping of the atomic bomb was caused by revenge.
Keep verb tense in the past.
ex- The US’s desire caused…
NO ABBREVIATIONS. Only in the body can the abbreviations be introduced.
ex- The United States. NOT- The U.S.
Keep in mind to not abbreviate WW1/2. For WW1 refer to it as the “First Great War (FGW)” or First/Second World War.
NO PRONOUNS. If appropriate in the body, there is no penalty.
Reduce prepositional phrasing by modifying.
ex- The United States’ desire for revenge caused the atomic bomb droppings. NOT- The desire for revenge by the United States caused the dropping of the atomic bombs.
Body
Conclusion- consisted of the restated thesis with details of support used in developing paragraphs.
Tips:
ALWAYS OUTLINE- formulate thesis/argument, connections, evidence, etc… before beginning the writing.
Always answer WHY and HOW.
ex- The United States’ desire for revenge caused the atomic bomb droppings. - Not a thesis yet!
Declarative statement = DECLARATION W/O EXPLANATION
First answer WHY? - what’s your reasoning? Cause?
Then answer HOW?- what’s the impact? Outcome? Effect?
Lastly order correctly- SUBJECT, WHY, and then HOW.
ex- The United States’ desire for revenge against Japanese attack at Pearl Harbour leading to a deadly pacific conflict caused the atomic bomb droppings.
CHARACTERIZATION OF AUTHORITARIAN RULE BY GRAEME GILL
Use of coercion (persuasion of doing something or faced with punishment).
Through mediums such as military and police forces.
Politicization of all life.
Doing something without thought or question to show loyalty and/or obedience. However, if not followed, looked at differently.
ex- politicians wear flagpins as a part of their uniform and if they don’t wear it they’re seen as not patriotic, etc.
Censorship in arts, cultural, and education sectors.
Static conservative ideals said to be “revolutionary.”
Nationalized, centralized economy = command.
Agriculture, energy, banking, transportation, and communication are the categories that were “targeted” for control.
Perceived social mobility.
Most commonly called: “Dictatorships.”
Most tend to use military as a mean of control.
All have “secret” police forces.
Most keep the nation’s wealth and resources within their inner circle.
All scapegoat (blame something on someone else).
Most illustrate a degree of success of control.
All eventually fail, usually at their own hand/within their inner circle.
CHARACTERIZATION OF TOTALITARIAN RULE BY LEONARD SCHAPIRO
Dominating “utopian” ideology.
COP deliberately created.
All powerful leader.
Indoctrination of all aspects of life.
Systematic use of terror for total compliance.
Absolute state control (leader) of the country.
CULT OF PERSONALITY
Characteristics of strong leaders.
Typify Authoritarian regimes.
Cult: a following around a strong charismatic leader/entity; established set of dogmas (beliefs, practices, and doctrines); not mainstream nor the norm.
Perpetual Visibility
Always visible in imagery.
Symbols of state.
Pictures throughout regime- not just referring to images, this includes flags, etc.
Ritual Adulation
Habit
Rite = Ceremonial
Worship
ex- shrines/alters in public and private
Heroic Myths
Emulate hero qualities.
Myths- teach a moral, lesson or explain reasoning of leadership.
Juxtaposition of Immanence and Distance
Always a part of life, one of the people, but above the people too
Assumption of Infallibility
Leader can do no wrong and is perfect.
Deflection from Criticism
Never leader’s fault, always someone else to blame.
Usually scapegoat..
Create “us” vs. “them” - “them” being the enemies of the state.
Rewrites history
Leader creates the ideology of the leader, the nation, and the people.
Mythology, legends, “backstory”
Very glorifies, glosses over “bad” periods/eras.
Bases education on “new” history.
Final Arbiter of Ideology
Leader approves and cultivates the “party line.”
Dictates the nation’s beliefs and dogmas.
Exploits the psychological weaknesses of the people
Creation of fear.
FEAR motivates to ACT.
Cultivates belief of potential isolations, single out since humanity possesses a need and desire to be a part of a group.
Provides hope again.
THE RISE OF MUSSOLINI
Biography (1883-1945)
Born at Dovia de Predappio, Italy, on July 29, 1883.
Family was poor and lived in 2-bedroom apartment.
Father- a blacksmith and socialism follower (a system providing for the sharing of lands and goods equally among all people); Mother- a teacher at elementary school.
Although intelligent, very violent and egotistical. Was the “poor” student and learned very little. Violent tendencies proved when he stabbed a fellow student.
After receiving diploma (1901) to teach at elementary school he stabbed another student.
Went to Switzerland (1902) to avoid military service. Here he associated with fellow socialists.
Returned to Italy (1904) and spent time in the military. In the Italian army (1914) as a journalist, he “crossed over into the middle class.”
He encouraged Great War (WW1) but not as a soldier, (1917) he was injured in a training camp- he never fought in the war.
Originally a Marxist Socialist (wanted workers to own their labor rights).
By (1909) he was convinced a national (only in Italy) rather than and International revolution was necessary.
Edited the Italian Socialist Party Newspaper- “Avanti! - Forward!”
As a journalist in the military, he became an interventionist (believed war was a game changer for Italy = conservative ideology) into the Great War and socialists kicked him out of their party.
Founded the newspaper “Il Polpolo d’Italia - The People of Italy” to encourage Italy to join the war.
His editorial positions:
The Great War would be a turning point for Italy.
The returning combat soldiers would form a new elite and bring about a new type of state.
The new elite would transform Italian politics and society.
Neither the great war nor the Paris peace conference achieved those promises for Italy.
Will go on to use Italy’s weakened state to take control:
Joined (coalition building) right wing parties.
Created Fascism.
Created Fascist party and its armed wing.
Overthrew the Italian parliament with conservative help.
Immediate Post Great War Italy
Fascism, to some extent, was a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle class of post war Italy:
Failed unity.
Serious economic dislocations:
National currency depreciated by 2/3
Borrowed and printed money
Cost of living drastically increased
Widespread unemployment
Strikes
Political instability:
Loss of liberal middle class’ control of the Italian parliament
Socialists and bolshevik threat paralyzed government
No transformiso among parties- multiparty system
Lack of effective government- failed coalitions
Violence- biennio rosso
Land grabs of estates by landless peasants
City seizures of private groups- Black Shirt Squad
Disappointment over “the fruit of victory
Denied territory
No Terra Irrendenta achieved
Failure to obtain Fiume even though won in Great war (GW)
Failure to obtain Albania- more Italians there than Albanians
Failure to obtain any Germany African colonies
League of Nations (LON) denied Balkan claims Italy presented to the LON council
Forced to give land concessions to Austria, Yugoslavia, and France
Military Defeatism:
Shame of military losses fueled militarism to prove Italian strength
Blamed liberal government- movement to conservatism
ITALIAN FASCISM
The Fasces Symbol
Comes from the Latin word fasces.
In ancient Rome, the fasces were cylindrical bundles of wooden rods, tied tightly together around an axe.
They symbolize unity and power.
A Definition of Fascism (in practice – not theory!)
Fascism is the ECONOMIC system of the means of production and the answers to basic economic questions in the hands of ONE
4 Factors (4F): land, labor, capital, and entrepreneur
3 Questions (3Q): who to produce for? what to be produced? how to produce it?
Fascism substituted the economic and government system of capitalism and republicanism with command economy and authoritarian rule (according to Mussolini)
An economically sound society with strict order, efficiency, and modernization combining Syndicalism and Nationalism
Syndicalism believes that economic life should be governed by groups representing the workers in various industries and crafts (Syndicates told workers what to do, in reality Mussolini’s cronies).
Nationalism in Italy combined the idea of class struggle equals a national struggle; therefore, to win a greater share of the world's wealth, all of Italy's classes must unite.
How Fascism controls the Economy
Official CARTELS (12) controlled all aspects of manufacturing, commerce, finance and agriculture.
SYNDICATES (12) control all aspects of workers/citizens
Planning boards (cronies) set production levels, prices, wages, working conditions and the size of “private” firms.
Levels of consumption dictated by the state (Mussolini and cronies) and “excess” incomes were taxed.
Protectionism key- promote domestic product (s)
Syndicalism resulted – political representation based on trade “unions”, firms and industry sectors instead of geography
Everything served the dictator’s economic plan
Cartels for businesses, syndicates for workers
How Fascism controls the Government
Party structure – Italian National Fascist Party Council (Mussolini and his cronies)
Hierarchical power
Representation and party membership – same people
Mussolini makes final decisions on party direction and directives
Rigged Court System
Police State (especially secret police forces)
Control all communication outlets
Command economy
Everything served the dictator’s authoritarian rule
Fascism and Mussolini’s Ideology (1925-1931)
Not until 1925 did Mussolini begin to formulate doctrine of Fascism
With the help of Giovanni Gentile, he wrote the Manifesto of Fascist Intellectuals:
Personal State over public one
Rural – anti-urban, anti-modern, and anti-industrialism
Technocratic – embracing modernism
Orthodoxy – tradition of gender roles
Conservative – favoring tradition, RCC, and monarchy
National syndicalism – anti-clerical
Police State – safety and protection
Squadrismo – fear
Political Elite - ras
RISE OF MUSSOLINI AND ITALIAN FASCISM CHARACTERISTICS
Founding of Italian Fascists
Mussolini joined the Arditi (Black Shirts/Stormtroopers) after the GW = became mercenaries during Bienno Rosso
Then formed the “Fascio di Combattimento” (Union of Combat) in 1919
Physically attacked political opposition, especially Socialists and Bolsheviks
In 1920s, Mussolini organized militant strikes in Turin and other northern Italian industrial cities.
Create chaos to control chaos
Fascist Formation
Hundreds of new fascist groups following Mussolini’s vision of reforms developed throughout Italy in response 🡪squadriste = regional organizations of Union of Combats and Arditi
1920, used squadriste for terror raids throughout Italy
In 1921, reorganized the Movement into the Italian Nationalist Fascist Party
Supported by Italian Industrialists and wealthy landowners
Mussolini Comes to Power
1921 election 🡪 Fascists included in the political coalition bloc of Prime Minister Giovanni Giolitti’s government [they win 35 seats, but did not receive the number of seats promised].
October 24-28, 1922 🡪 Mussolini threatened a coup d’etat.
“March on Rome” 🡪 50,000 Black Shirts staged demonstrations throughout the capital.
Mussolini Forms a Government
Italian Parliament wanted to declare martial law to drive out Fascists
King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign a law giving the Italian military the ability to quell the chaos and arrest the Fascists.
He invited Mussolini to join a coalition government with Giolitti, Mussolini refused.
1923 🡪 Mussolini demanded and seized dictatorial powers for 1 year (The Acerbo Law) during a political crisis [Black Shirts murdered one of Mussolini’s chief Socialist critics, Giacomo Matteotti].
The Fascists Consolidate Power (1925-1931)
With the temporary legal authority, he transferred power from Parliament to himself
New laws passed to create the legal basis for Italy’s official transformation into a single-party state:
Independent political parties & trade unions were abolished after the Aventine Secession
Freedom of the press was curbed.
Special courts created to persecute any political opposition.
National police force created [with a secret police component - OVRA].
Agreement with Pope of Roman Catholic Church (RCC)
Begins writing his Manifesto on the Fascist doctrine
By 1926, Mussolini = Il Duce
The Characteristics of Italian Fascism
Ideology:
A form of extreme right-wing ideology.
It celebrates the nation or the race as an organic community transcending all other loyalties.
Powerful and continuing nationalism.
Constant use of patriotic mottos, slogans, symbols, songs, etc.
Flags are seen everywhere.
Subordination to the State
Fascism seeks forcibly to subordinate ALL aspects of society to its vision of organic community [usually through a totalitarian state].
It uses organized violence to suppress opposition.
Glorification of force.
Accepts the tenets of Social Darwinism.
Cult of State Worship
The individual had no significance except as a member of the state.
The fascists were taught:
Credere! [to believe]
Obbedire! [to obey]
Combattere! [to fight]
The Myth of Rebirth
The “phoenix rising up from the ashes.” – Irredenta achievement
Emphasis on a national or racial rebirth after a period of decline or destruction.
Calls for a “spiritual revolution” against signs of moral decay [such as individualism and materialism].
Seeks to purge “alien” forces and groups that threaten the organic community.
Militarism
Rampant Sexism
Almost exclusively male-dominated.
Traditional gender roles are made more rigid.
Divorce, abortion & homosexuality are suppressed.
The state is represented as the ultimate guardian of the family institution.
Identification of Enemies or Scapegoats as a Unifying Cause
The people are rallied into a unifying patriotic frenzy over the need to eliminate a perceived common threat or foe.
The foe defined as any racial, ethnic, religious minorities, liberals, communists, etc.
Disdain for the Recognition of Human Rights
Because of the fear of enemies and the need for security, the people are persuaded that human rights can be ignored out of “need.”
People look the other way or even approve of torture, summary executions, long incarcerations of prisoners, assassinations, etc.
Religion & Government Are Intertwined
Fascist governments utilized the most common religion in the nation as a tool to manipulate public opinion.
They meld religious rhetoric, symbolism, mythology, etc., into their policies [appears to give a religious
imprimatur to government policies!].
Disdain for Intellectuals & for the Arts
Open hostility to higher education and academia is promoted.
Professors and other academics are censored or arrested.
Free expression in the arts and letters is openly attacked.
Promotion of “fascist themed art” only
Rampant Cronyism & Corruption
Inner circles (groups of friends and allies of same philosophy) govern a Fascist regime.
The group uses governmental power and authority to protect friends from accountability.
National resources and even treasures can be appropriated or even outright stolen by government leaders.
Fraudulent Elections
Hold rigged elections.
Other times, elections are manipulated by smear campaigns against or even assassination of opposition candidates if not a single party state.
Use legislation to narrow the electorate.
Controlled Mass Media
Labor Power is Suppressed; Corporate Power is Protected
Because the organizing power of labor is the only real threat to a fascist government, labor unions are suppressed or independent unions are eliminated – Syndicates manage labor.
The industrial and business aristocracy of a fascist state often are the ones who put the government leaders into power.
This creates a mutually beneficial business/government relationship and power elite!
ITALIAN FASCIST CONTROL AND PROPAGANDA
State “Corporatism” - Consolidation of Economy
1926 🡪 The National Council of Corporations created.
12 Cartels of employers and 12 syndicates of employees established to manage the 22 sectors of the economy.
Supported by small capitalists, low-level bureaucrats, and the middle class
Required all businesses and workers to join.
Consolidation of Power
Created a Single Party State
Controlling the Fascist Party
Fascist Grand Council
Syndicalism
Union of Combat and Arditi Squads into National Military
Council of Ministers
Confindustria – rights of the workers and businesses
Support of RCC
Podestà established =unitary system – no more provinces or municipality law
Consolidating Powers over RCC = The Lateran Accords (1929)
This settled a long-running dispute over the Catholic Church’s role in Italian politics 🡪 this was the 1st time in Italian history that the Church and the government agreed on their respective roles!
Terms:
The Papacy was granted temporal sovereignty over Vatican City.
The Papacy was guaranteed the free exercise of Roman Catholicism as the sole state religion throughout Italy.
The Papacy accepted Italian sovereignty over the former Papal States.
The Papacy controls parochial schools with National Fascist Ideology taught too
Roman Catholicism = state religion; unifying and control of religious life
Consolidation of Power – The Controlling of Minds
Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro
National Recreational Club
40% workers, 25% peasants
Indoctrination and training
L’inquadramento
Expand party membership
Social welfare aid
Appease more Italians
The Romanità Movement
Artistic and cultural movement to glorify the revival of the “New Roman Empire”
Monstra Augustea della Romanita held
COP of Il Duce
Use of mass media = radio, film
The Fascist Family
The Fascists encouraged the development of large families.
Mothers could win prizes, jewelry, and tea with Mussolini for the “production” of children.
Fecunditá = BENEFITS to large families: increasing welfare benefits, legislating tax breaks, and making available better health care.
The regime associated motherhood, children, family, and virility with maintaining national greatness.
“It’s up to you to create a generation of soldiers and pioneers for the defense of the empire.”
– Benito Mussolini, to the women of Italy
Education
The first sentence pronounced by children at school was Let us salute the flag in the Roman fashion; hail to Italy; hail to Mussolini.
Textbooks emphasized:
The glorious part of the ancient Roman Empire.
Rewritten history of Italian conquests
The limitations imposed upon the present inhabitants by geography and the West.
The imperial destiny that awaited Italy’s future development.
Indoctrination of Youth
Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) – “The Wolf Cubs”
Youth Fascist Party
Levels of Scouting:
Fugli della Lupa (Children of the She-Wolf)
Balilla Musketeers
Vanguard
Vanguard Musketeers
Young Fascists
Also, female division – Fasci Femminili
Gli Ebrei in Italia (The Jews in Italy) - 1937
Provided the intellectual premise for the 1938 “racial” laws.
Attacked Jews for:
Their alleged Zionist sympathies.
Their championing of degenerate avante-garde cultural expressions.
For their doubtful loyalty to the Fascist regime and its imperial claims.
Anti-Semitism
50,000 Jews lived in Italy in the 1920 to the 1930s – most in Rome and Venice
Mussolini did NOT implement an extermination program in Italy.
75% of Italian Jews survived World War II.
8,000 died in German extermination camps (mainly at the hands of RCC, not Mussolini’s)
1938 🡪anti-Semitic laws passed
Manifesto degli Scienziati Razzisti [The Manifesto of the Racist Scientists].
Excluded foreign Jews [most of them were sent to German death camps].
Forbade all Jews from teaching.
Excluded Jews from serving in the government or in the military.
Propaganda EVERYWHERE in ALL Aspects of Life
Used to justify Fascist Policies
Organized by Ministry of Culture
Several Common Themes:
Pageantry and Rhetoric
Unification
Nationalism
Worker Highlighted
Family
Victory
Mussolini’s COP
EMPIRE – Spazio Vitale!
Anti: Foreign, Democracy, Bolshevism
Disseminated throughout newspapers, slogans, posters, exhibitions, parades, songs, radio, film, schools, and youth groups