AP World History Final Exam Vocabulary Review

Foundations of Civilization and the Neolithic Revolution

The first Agricultural Revolution, also known as the Neolithic Revolution, marked a fundamental shift in human history from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to sedentary farming. This transition brought about several critical changes:

Sedentary Living: Humans began building permanent settlements rather than following migratory patterns.
Domestication: The intentional cultivation of plants (such as wheat and barley) and the taming of animals (such as sheep, goats, and cattle).
Population Growth: A more reliable food supply led to a surplus, supporting larger populations.
Social Stratification: The emergence of specialized labor and social hierarchies, as not everyone was required to produce food.

Historically, the first civilization is recognized as beginning in Mesopotamia, specifically the Sumerian city-states, around $5,000$ BCE. Located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, this region provided the fertile soil necessary for early urban development.

Early Empires and Law

In $2350$ BCE, the Mesopotamian ruler Sargon of Akkad built the first true empire in history by conquering several city-states across the Fertile Crescent. By uniting these independent entities under a single central authority, he established a model for future imperial rule.

Later, in the same region, the ruler Hammurabi of Babylon established Hammurabi’s Code. This serves as the first written law code in world history. It was inscribed on stone steles and followed the principle of lex talionis (retaliation), or "an eye for an eye," providing a standardized legal framework for the empire.

Features of Civilization and Early States

Civilizations are traditionally defined by several specific features:

Urban Centers: Large cities that serve as hubs for trade and administration.
Specialized Labor: Artisans, priests, and bureaucrats.
Complex Institutions: Organized government and religion.
Social Hierarchies: Clear distinctions between different social classes.
Advanced Technology: Tools and methods developed to solve complex problems.
Record Keeping: Developing systems of writing (e.g., Cuneiform, Hieroglyphics).

In China, the early Zhou monarchs (including King Wu) justified their right to rule through the Mandate of Heaven. This political and religious doctrine stated that the heavens granted the right to rule to a just leader but would withdraw it if the ruler became corrupt or failed to protect the people.

Innovations and Regional Powers

By $1700$ BCE, the Hittites had mastered iron technology, which gave them a significant military advantage over neighbors who still relied on bronze.

In contrast, the Assyrians are accurately assessed as a highly militaristic and efficient empire known for their use of iron weaponry and psychological warfare to control vast territories.

In Egypt, the pharaoh Akhenaten (originally Amenhotep IV) instituted a radical religious reform. He attempted to impose monotheism by prioritizing the worship of the sun-disk, Aten, above all other traditional Egyptian gods, effectively closing temples and moving the capital to Amarna.

Classical Empires and Philosophical Foundations

Persian Administration: Darius I managed the vast Persian Empire by dividing it into provinces known as satrapies. Each was governed by a satrap (governor) who was often a relative of the king, ensuring loyalty and efficient tax collection.

Greek Philosophy: Figures such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle challenged traditional myths and established schools of thought that expanded education. Socrates focused on the method of inquiry; Plato founded the Academy; and Aristotle developed formal logic and the foundations of many modern sciences.

The Persian Wars: A major result of these conflicts was the preservation of Greek independence and the subsequent "Golden Age" of Athens. However, internal friction led to the Peloponnesian War, which revealed an inherent flaw in Greek society: the inability of city-states to remain unified due to deep-seated rivalries (specifically between Athens and Sparta).

Alexander the Great: This Macedonian ruler built and controlled a vast empire stretching from Greece to India until his death in $323$ BCE, spreading Hellenistic culture throughout the known world.

The Rise and Legacy of Rome

The Punic Wars: Fought between Rome and Carthage, the most significant outcome was Rome’s total destruction of Carthage and its emergence as the dominant naval and land power in the Mediterranean.

Imperial Transition: In $31$ BCE, after the Battle of Actium, Octavian (taking the title Augustus) reorganized the government by naming Rome an empire, ending the Republic and initiating the Pax Romana.

Roman Legacies: One of the most enduring legacies of the Roman Empire is its system of Roman Law (including the concept of "innocent until proven guilty") and its advanced architectural engineering (e.g., arches and concrete), as well as the spread of the Latin language.

World Religions and Their Founders

Religion and their founders are correctly matched as follows:

Buddhism: Siddhartha Gautama
Christianity: Jesus of Nazareth
Islam: Muhammad
Confucianism: Confucius (who explained an ordered society based on filial piety and the five relationships in his Analects)

Unification of China and Indian Beliefs

The Qin and Han Dynasties:

Qin Shi Huangdi (the first ruler to unite China) took the title of First Emperor. He created a unified civilization by standardizing weights, measures, currency, and the Chinese script, while utilizing the philosophy of Legalism.
The Han Dynasty was founded by Liu Bang (Emperor Gaozu) in $206$ BCE.
To organize the massive governmental bureaucracy, Han rulers eventually adopted Confucianism as the state ideology.

Indian Developments: Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, articulated the Four Noble Truths, which focus on the nature of suffering and the path to its cessation. Later, the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka converted to Buddhism and pursued a policy of non-violence after witnessing the brutal carnage of the Kalinga War.

Regional Interconnectivity and Trade

Silk Road: Connected China and Europe (including the Mediterranean world).
Indian Ocean Maritime Network: Historians refer to this as a bicultural society because many merchants would marry local women in port cities across East Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, leading to a blend of cultures and religions.
African Trade: The Trans-Saharan trade route was the most important for fostering cultural exchange, particularly the spread of Islam into West Africa.

The Foundation and Expansion of Islam

Two critical dates for Islam:

$622$ : The Hijra (migration from Mecca to Medina).
$632$ : The death of Muhammad.

Following Muhammad’s death in $632$ , a schism occurred over who should succeed him as the leader of the Muslim community, leading to the split between Sunnis and Shi'as. Sunnis believed leadership should go to those most capable, while Shi'as believed it should stay within Muhammad's bloodline (beginning with Ali).

Post-Classical Europe and Asia

Byzantine Empire: After the fall of Rome, the Byzantines preserved Greek and Roman knowledge and law, as well as protected Western Europe from eastern invasions for centuries.

European Feudalism: A decentralized social and political system based on rigid hierarchies and mutual obligations between lords (who provided land) and vassals or serfs (who provided military service or labor).

The Magna Carta: Signed by King John I in $1215$ , this English document established the principle that the monarch is not above the law, significantly impacting future government activity and constitutional developments in the West.

Precursors to the Crusades: The Battle of Tours ( $732$ ), where Charles Martel stopped the Islamic expansion into Europe, is often seen as a precursor to the Crusades ( $1095-1204$ ), which were religious wars aimed at reclaiming the Holy Land.

East Asian Developments and Mongol Hegemony

Song Dynasty: Developed gunpowder, but primarily utilized it for fireworks and early incendiary devices, whereas Western armies later adapted it for more powerful cannons and handheld firearms.

Kamakura Japan: The Samurai class appeared as the dominant social and military class.

The Mongols: Historians credit Temujin (better known as Chinggis Khan) with his greatest accomplishment: the unification of the Mongol tribes. His successors split the empire into several khanates, such as the Golden Horde (Russia), the Ilkhans (Persia), and the Yuan Dynasty (China).

Exploration and the Early Modern Transition

Ming Expansion: The Ming rulers attempted to expand trade networks through the massive treasure fleets led by the admiral Zheng He.

Ibn Battuta: A traveler who documented his journeys over $75,000$ miles through Africa, Asia, and Europe, providing an invaluable record of the Islamic world in the fourteenth century.

European Innovation: Agricultural innovations like the three-field system and the heavy plow led to food surpluses and population increases. However, the decline of Mongol power made the overland Silk Road dangerous, forcing Europeans to seek water routes for commerce.

Renaissance and Urbanization: The Renaissance is described as a rebirth of classical learning and art. Urban growth during this time was driven by the revival of trade, the rise of the merchant class, and the aftermath of the Black Death, which led to higher wages in cities.

Global Voyages of Discovery

Leif Erikson (Around $1000$ ): Norwegian navigator who founded Vinland in Canada.
Christopher Columbus ( $1492$ ): Italian sailing for Spain who reached the Americas.
Vasco da Gama: Portuguese navigator who sailed around the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) to reach India.
Ferdinand Magellan: His expedition (sailing for Spain) was the first to circumnavigate the globe.

Religious and Scientific Revolutions

Protestant Reformation: Initiated in $1517$ (though noted as $1519$ in some contexts relative to its spread) by Martin Luther, who challenged church authority and corruption.

Scientific Revolution: Characterized by the development of the scientific method and discoveries based on empirical observation (e.g., Copernicus, Galileo, Newton). The overall result in the $1600s$ and $1700s$ was a more rationalist, secular worldview.

Enlightenment ( $1700s$ ): Challenged traditional authority (church and monarchy) and argued for human rights, liberty, and the application of reason to social and political problems.

Economic and Political Shifts

Commercial Revolution: Transition to a global market-based economy using mercantilism and later capitalism. Capitalism: Defined as an economic system based on private ownership and the pursuit of profit. English Civil War: Fought between the Monarchists (Cavaliers) and Parliamentarians (Roundheads); the outcome was the execution of Charles I and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy later in the century. Global Conflict: The Seven Years' War (centered in North America as the French and Indian War) gave Britain control of most of the North American continent.

Slavery and Modern Revolutions

Slave Trade Differences: Unlike the European maritime slave trade (focused on agricultural labor in the Americas), Islamic slave trading often involved domestic service and saw more diverse roles for enslaved people across Africa and the Middle East.

American Revolution ( $1775-1783$ ): The major outcome was the independence of the thirteen colonies from Britain. Its global impact was serving as a model for subsequent democratic revolutions across the world.

French Revolution Phases ( $1789-1815$ ):

National Assembly ( $1789-1791$ )
Legislative Assembly ( $1791-1792$ )
The Convention/Reign of Terror ( $1792-1795$ )
The Directory ( $1795-1799$ ) (Followed by the Napoleonic Era)

Napoleon Bonaparte: Credited with spreading French revolutionary ideals (like the Napoleonic Code and meritocracy) across Europe through his conquests.

Haitian Revolution ( $1804$ ): Led by former slave Toussaint L'Ouverture, establishing the first independent Black republic.

Industrialization and Its Impact

Beginnings: The Industrial Revolution began in the textile industry. Factory System: Centralized production where workers moved from home-based production to specialized facilities using machines. Adam Smith: Espoused laissez-faire economics, arguing that governments should not interfere in business. Socialism/Communism: Developed by Karl Marx as a response to the perceived inequalities of the Industrial Revolution.

Nationalism and New Imperialism

Unification:

Italy: Led by Camillo di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi in the $1860s$ .
Germany: Led by Otto von Bismarck (and King Wilhelm I).

Modernization: Japan (under the Meiji Restoration) was the first East Asian nation to modernize its economy and Westernize its military.

New Imperialism ( $1800s$ ): Motivated by the search for raw materials, new markets, and the belief in the "civilizing mission." This led to the "Scramble for Africa," where European nations competed to colonize the continent.

The World Wars and Modern Conflict

World War I ( $1914-1918$ ):

Causes include Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism.
Casualties increased due to new industrial technologies like the machine gun and gas warfare.
The US joined in $1917$ due to unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram.
Treaty of Versailles ( $1919$ ): Failed because it imposed harsh reparations on Germany and ignored the interests of many smaller nations.

Russian Revolution: Led by Vladimir Lenin (and later the Civil War), establishing the Soviet Union.

Interwar Leaders: Mustafa Kemal Atatürk westernized Turkey; Mahatma Gandhi used nonviolent resistance in India; Mao Zedong founded the Chinese Communist Party.

World War II ( $1939-1945$ ):

Triggered in Europe by the invasion of Poland and in Asia by the invasion of China (or the attack on Pearl Harbor regarding the US entry in $1941$ ).
Major turning points: Battle of Stalingrad, Battle of Midway, and D-Day.
Ending: The surrender of Germany (V-E Day) and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki leading to Japan's surrender (V-J Day).

The Cold War and Contemporary Era

Superpowers: The USA and the USSR emerged after WWII. United Nations: Formed in $1945$ to maintain international peace and prevent future world wars. Space Race: The USA won the race to the moon when Neil Armstrong set foot on the lunar surface in $1969$ . War on Terror: Triggered by the September 11, 2001 attacks; the U.S. killed Osama bin Laden in $2011$ .

Technology and Globalization

Digital Age: Initiated by the development of the personal computer (e.g., Apple or IBM).
Internet: Designed as a tool for the U.S. Department of Defense (ARPANET) in the $1980s$ .
Health: Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin in $1928$ .
Environment: Earth Day founded in $1970$ .
Global Brands: Examples include Coca-Cola or McDonald's.
Modern Geopolitics: India is the world’s largest democracy with over $1.4 \times 10^9$ people. The ongoing Syrian Civil War (starting in $2011$ ) created a massive refugee crisis.
Cell Phone Invention: Invented in $1974$ (Martin Cooper/Motorola).