Chapter 6 - Theories in Sociology of Education
Introduction to Sociology of Education
All educational processes and the social development of individuals are influenced by social institutions and individual experiences within those institutions.
Sociology of education is a field of specialization that can be classified as both a philosophical and a sociological concept.
It denotes ideologies, curricula, and pedagogical techniques involved in the inculcation and management of knowledge.
It addresses the social reproduction of personalities and cultures.
The field is concerned with the relationships, activities, and reactions of teachers and learners within the classroom.
It emphasizes sociological problems in the realm of education.
Separate focus points in the field include economic aspects of education, such as how economic forces shape school practices and how schools determine individual productivity and earnings.
Related issues of focus include socialization, allocation, and legitimization.
Theoretical paradigms in the field explain the reciprocal influence between society and individuals, conceptualizing society, social forces, social patterns, social control, and human behavior.
Key Concepts: Sociology, Education, and Sociology of Education
Sociology
The term 'sociology' was first used by the French philosopher Auguste Comte () in , replacing the previous term 'social physics'.
Comte is regarded as the father of sociology and recognized the need for a distinct science of human society to study social laws and dynamics regulating interactions between people and institutions like family, schools, and political systems.
Other key Western intellectuals who developed the field include Karl Marx (), Herbert Spencer (), Émile Durkheim (), George Herbert Mead (), Max Weber (), Talcott Parsons (), and Alfred Schutz ().
Etymology: The word is derived from the Latin socius ('companion') and the Greek logos ('the study of'). Thus, it is the study of companionship or social relations.
Definition: The study of the origin, development, organization, and functioning of human social behaviors affected by social interactions among groups, organizations, and the world.
Social interaction may involve two people or thousands, where parties form systems for interaction.
Sociology involves the study of "social factors," which are ideas, feelings, and ways of behaving that are imposed upon people born into a society and persist over time.
Systems should be investigated as a whole; they cannot be understood by examining individual parts in isolation. An individual may die, but the social system continues to operate.
Education
Etymology: Derived from the Latin word educere, meaning 'to bring out that which is within'.
It is concerned with eliciting latent human values.
Definition: The act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing reasoning and judgment, and preparing individuals intellectually for mature life.
Education is a dynamic and ever-changing process, not a static phenomenon.
In a broad sense, education serves as a form of socialization, acquiring knowledge and learning skills to service society and maintain order.
Plato (4th Century BC): Stated in 'The Republic' that education should produce a balanced, smooth-functioning, just society where individuals serve society's needs.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: In the novel 'Émile', emphasized the worthiness of the individual and the need for freedom in education to achieve individuality.
John Dewey (1890s): Viewed education as a fundamental method of social progress and reform, shaping children's characters and transforming society.
Robert Westbrook (1993): Critiqued Dewey, arguing that most schools are designed for social reproduction rather than transformation. For schools to menjadi agencies of reform, they must be thoroughly reconstructed.
Sociology of Education
The study of educational structures, processes, and practices from a sociological perspective.
It is a core field within sociology but also part of the discipline of education.
It analyzes the social processes and patterns within the educational system to understand the relationship between educational institutions and society.
Micro level: Identifies how variations in school practices (e.g., teaching methods) lead to differences in student performance.
Macro level: Identifies how social forces (politics, economics, culture) create variations in schools as organizations.
Key theorists include Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons, Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman, and John Meyer.
Durkheim considered education essentially social in character and function.
It addresses social institutions from peer groups to the entire system, including procedures, ideologies, and interrelationships with economic and political bodies.
Functions of Sociology of Education
Assimilation and Transmission of Culture and Traditions
This must be done consciously and selectively based on value and acceptability in a democratic society.
Education should assist in acquiring:
Clear moral principles and values.
The ability to examine thoughts and feelings.
Awareness of proficiencies and goals.
Self-esteem and belief in goal achievement.
Creative thinking.
Appreciation of culture (art, music, humanities).
A sense of well-being (mental and physical health).
Respect for others and the physical environment.
The capacity to live a fulfilling life.
Development of New Social Patterns
Preserving traditional values while developing new ones to keep pace with technology and mass media.
Aims include:
Citizens grounded in their own culture but open to others.
Cultivation of a global mind-set.
Advanced knowledge for responsible economic development.
Citizens aware of social responsibility.
Capability to assess information to make predictions for the future.
Training in problem-solving and alternative solution evaluation.
Activation of Constructive and Creative Forces
Providing a qualified workforce capable of participating in the 'intelligence revolution'.
Objectives include:
Providing adequate vocational education to make a living.
Developing mental and physical skills (motor, thinking, communication, social).
Producing adaptable people.
Creating individuals who contribute to society.
Producing citizens who understand and live by democratic principles.
Encouraging good use of leisure time.
Teaching students to adapt to, prepare for, or initiate change.
Promoting knowledge of socially acceptable moral practices.
Functionalism (Structural Functionalism)
Theoretical Foundations
Grounded in natural and physical sciences, specifically the theory of homeostasis in living systems theory.
Focuses on how society's sub-systems (institutions) contribute to each other and maintain stability and equilibrium for the whole.
Society is viewed as more than the sum of its parts; these parts are interdependent.
Achieved greatest popularity in America during the and .
Key Concepts in Functionalism
Manifest Functions: Intentional and obvious (e.g., attending church to worship).
Latent Functions: Unintentional and not obvious (e.g., schools providing mass entertainment or helping distinguish personal values from institutional values).
Moral Education: Durkheim's term for socialization into society’s mainstream to create a cohesive social structure.
Social Solidarity/Solidarity Forms:
Mechanical Solidarity: Social cohesion in traditional, simple societies where people have similar values and engage in similar work (e.g., Amish society, rural South African communities).
Organic Solidarity: Social cohesion in industrialized, complex societies where people are interdependent but have diverse beliefs and specialized work (e.g., New York, Johannesburg).
Émile Durkheim on Functionalism
Recommended a sociological approach to education in works such as 'The Rules of Sociological Method' (), 'Education and Society' (), and 'Moral Education' ().
Focuses on preserving social order against destabilizing influences.
Viewed education as the influence exercised by the adult generation on those not yet ready for social life.
Child development must meet the demands of political society and their specific social niche.
Education should provide specialisation and build the necessary consensus for society to continue.
It provides a cognitive framework and demands conformity to defined norms and values.
The "internal economy" of society dictates the person emerging from education, not nature or individual administrators.
Talcott Parsons and the AGIL Model
Parsons () developed the "theory of action" and explored how social systems maintain equilibrium.
AGIL Model (Four basic functions for system survival):
Adaptation (A): Acquiring resources (Economic system).
Goal Attainment (G): Setting and implementing goals (Political system).
Integration (I): Maintaining solidarity/coordination (Schools, churches, media, police).
Latency (L): Creating and transmitting culture/values (Kinship, family, marriage).
Levels of Organizational Structure:
Technical System: Bottom level (workers, teachers, scientists producing the direct product).
Managerial System: Mediates between the organization and environment; administers internal affairs.
Institutional System: Top level; relates the organization to the larger society.
Fundamental Premises:
Systems have requisite needs.
Specialised structures satisfy these needs.
Complexity increases through structural differentiation.
Differentiation creates pressure for integrating processes.
Integrating processes maintain equilibrium.
Assumptions of Functionalism
Collective Conscience/Value Consensus: Shared values promote cooperation, avoid conflict, and provide similar identities.
Social Order: Basic needs (food, shelter, money, clothing) support maintenance.
Education/School: Builds social solidarity; instills values of achievement and equality of opportunity; acts as a bridge between family and society (secondary socialization).
Family: Primary agent of socialization; provides emotional security; performs sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational functions.
Government: Provides education; relies on taxes from citizens shaped by the school system.
Religion: Acts as "moral glue," providing guidelines and principles for stability.
Media: Disseminates information and reflects the interests of a diverse audience.
Power Politics: Power is used to achieve collective goals (e.g., material prosperity) and is generally accepted as legitimate.
Critique of Functionalism
Complacency: Encourages the maintenance of the status quo and does not question social stratification or role allocation.
Indoctrination: In multicultural societies, forcing a single set of 'universal' values is criticized as indoctrination.
Inequality: Fails to account for how children from non-affluent backgrounds can compete equally with affluent children; equality of opportunity is questioned.
Social Change: Views active social change as undesirable.
Conflict Theory (Marxism)
Intellectual Origins
Intellectually founded by Karl Marx; developed further by Max Weber, C. Wright Mills, and Ludwig Gumplovicz.
Maintains that conflict is inevitable because of different amounts of material and non-material resources (wealthy vs. poor).
Powerful groups use their power to exploit groups with less power.
Key Theorists of Conflict
Karl Marx: Argued the state uses property/material conditions to gain political power. Conflict arises because owners exploit worker labor without equal sharing of results.
Max Weber: Refined Marx's theory; argued conflict originates from discrepancies in power, prestige, and property. Stated social conflict is found in all aspects (politics, gender, religion) and that class divisions are normal and inevitable.
C. Wright Mills: Founder of modern conflict theory. Argued the "power elite" control social structures to disregard the interests of the non-elite.
Conflict Theory and Families
Families maintain patriarchy and social inequality.
In many traditional African contexts, the patriarchal system benefits men more than women, maintaining men's position of power.
Case Study: Yodwa and Simi: Yodwa, a teacher, performs all household chores, childcare, and professional preparation, while Simi, a police officer, performs none, dismissing the idea of hiring help as a "disgrace" to his traditional family.
Wealthy families use inheritance and social capital to maintain privileged positions for their members.
Conflict in families is viewed as normal; families are not inherently harmonious but can manage differences through identifying sources of power.
Conflict Theory Applied to Society
Explains hostility between rich and poor and non-economic conflicts (e.g., Protestants vs. Catholics over spiritual resources).
Case Study: Mbalenhle school fees: A school principal proposed a fee increase for upgrades. The wealthy bosses supported it; poor workers opposed it. The powerful group demanded the school be divided into two sections based on affordability.
Education is controlled by powerful groups to reproduce inequalities and legitimise their own ideas.
Status Quo Reproduction: Cycle where lower-class learners become lower-class adults; failure is blamed on the individual rather than social inequality.
Alternative View (Higgins/Hewitt): Conflict is not dysfunctional but a natural part of social life that ensures change, generates group solidarity, and highlights societal inequalities.
Assumptions of Conflict Theory
Interactions: Result in conflict.
Change: Normal and inevitable.
Competition: Characteristic of human relationships over scarce resources (money, leisure, partners).
Structural Inequality: Built into all social structures.
Hierarchies: Exist based on varying degrees of resource ownership.
Revolution: Macro changes occur through abrupt, revolutionary conflict rather than gradual adaptation.
Propositions of Conflict Theory
Marx: Competition between proletariat and bourgeoisie.
Gumplowicz: Societies promote slave-master relationships.
Weber: Protestant ethic (no gain without hard work) increases capitalistic struggle.
Feminine Conflict Theory: Men cling to power, oppressing women's access to resources.
Post-colonialism: Powerful countries colonize others to increase wealth.
World Systems Theory: Division between well-developed "core" countries and underdeveloped "peripheral"/"semi-peripheral" countries. Core countries extract raw resources and sell them back as consumer goods.
Critique of Conflict Theory
Presumes everything benefits only the ruling class.
Portrays the working class as unaware of their subordination.
It is deterministic and does not explain how individuals are affected.
Symbolic Interactionism
Foundations
Focuses on the self and society, emphasizing subjective meaning.
Initiated by Max Weber and George H. Mead.
The term was coined by Herbert Blumer.
Pragmatists Charles H. Cooley and W. I. Thomas also developed this perspective.
Premises (Blumer):
Humans act based on the meanings things have for them.
Meanings derive from social interaction.
Meanings are modified through an interpretive process.
Principles of Symbolic Interactionism
Human beings possess the capacity for thought, which is shaped by social interaction.
People learn meanings and symbols that allow for distinctively human action.
People can modify meanings based on their interpretation of situations.
Modifications occur because people can interact with themselves first (self-reflection).
Society is composed of intertwined patterns of action.
Assumptions of Symbolic Interactionism
Symbols: Social objects created and maintained through interaction.
Subjective Meaning: Not fixed; developed and negotiated in situations.
The Self: Regarded as a mirror; individuals reflect on themselves as objects.
Significant Others: People whose opinions matter for developing the self-concept.
Generalised Others: The community or organized system.
Situational Definitions: Situations are real if they are defined as real by others.
Self-fulfilling Prophecies: Definitions lead to actions (e.g., "A child follows his or her name").
Culture: Interactants impart meanings through interpretation and negotiation.
Symbolic Interactionism and Families
Ernest Burgess: Viewed the family as a unity of individuals working together to shape personalities.
Willard Waller: Used qualitative methods (case studies) to study family dynamics.
Reuben Hill: Emphasized role-making, role definition, and role identity.
Socialization: Regarded as highly reciprocal between parents and children.
Case Study: Lona: A student from Nongoma who respects elders by looking down. Her White lecturer, Prof. Baker, identifies this as disrespect and shouting, while Lona is distraught by the clash of cultural meanings (eye contact rules).
Divisions Within Symbolic Interactionism
Chicago School (Herbert Blumer): Advocates qualitative methods to study the process of reality construction in natural settings.
Iowa School (Manford Kuhn): Advocates quantitative methods to study the products of interaction, such as self-concepts.
Structural Interactionism: Burgess emphasizes social structure over process.
Questions & Discussion
Activity 1: Discuss the complexity of modern society and the importance of social consensus.
Activity 2: Identify groups in South Africa with shared values and social solidarity.
Activity 3: How does the education system allocate roles, status, and reward? Is this acceptable?
Activity 4: Do ethnicity and language hinder or enhance collective conscience in South Africa?
Activity 5: Is the family still the provider of norms, values, and security?
Activity 6: Identify conflicts in the case studies (Mamba, Mbalenhle, Lona) and how they could be avoided.
Activity 7: Discuss World Systems Theory in the context of your own country.
Activity 8: Does social relationship creation through interaction always lead to appropriate behavior?
Case Study Specifics:
Mamba ( ): Breadwinner for a family of five children. Works in a mine that uses a low-wage model. Mine owners take high profits while workers live in tin shacks. Government recommended a salary increase for the President's cabinet while miners strike.
Yodwa and Simi: Married years with children. Yodwa travels to teach, but performs all "second shift" labor. Simi refuses a maid to preserve traditional "honor".