Theories of beliefs

functional definition of beliefs: considers their role and function within society

Functions of religion

Marxism

1. ‘opiate of the masses’, Marx: religion pacifies the working class and keeps them quiet (acts as a painkiller to numb the pain) so they do not complain about exploitation so it continues.

2. false spiritual compensator: would argue that heaven/ afterlife does not exist so do not get reward after hard work. w/c just fooled into staying passive.

3. ‘spiritual gin’, Lenin: w/c get drunk on religion and are easy to exploit.

4. ‘flowers in the chains’: distracted from exploitation e.g. by music, smell of incense, grand buildings.

5. legitimises inequality: makes it seem fair. e.g. Hindus believe karma is built up as credit or debit in one life and in the next you are then rewarded or punished. Therefore your social situation is fair as you deserve your position, therefore stay passive.

6. alienation- means you feel as if you do not belong. The work is repetitive, hard and we do not see the reward as alienated from the product. Religion provides compensation meaning we continue to work.

Functionalism

1. social solidarity through value consensus, Durkheim

   • religion brings us together as one group as we agree on what is important

   • for example: the Arunta, an Aboriginal tribe in north Australia

     • saw value consensus in totems (had etchings of animals e.g. bears which represents strength)

     • community worship these totems so everyone understands the values of society therefore creating social solidarity.

     • sacred (significant and revered) and profane (ordinary and unremarkable) - all objects, ideas and values were separated into these.

   • created a collective conscience: the ritual actions of the society in worshipping the totems meant right and wrong were understood not individually but collectively across society.

2. psychological comfort, Malinowski - religion or beliefs serve the role of helping us cope with dangerous or scary situations. ( existential security)

   • studied Trobriand islanders

     • used open sea- had a high yield of fish but was dangerous OR

     • lagoon- low yield of fish but safer

   • used canoe magic before setting off as a psychological comfort to feel safer due to open sea being more dangerous e.g. praying, ceremonies

Feminism

Feminists argue that religion is patriarchal and that it legitimises and supports the patriarchy.

1. religious organisations- women cannot have many roles in leadership e.g. the Pope is male, leaders in Islam or Judaism etc. are always male.

2. women are not able to attend services in Islam or Judaism while on their period

3. religious buildings favour men e.g. separate prayer rooms in Islamic mosques for men from women and children.

4. different cultural expectations e.g. headdress in Islam

5. different religious laws for men and women e.g. access to divorce (women not able to request it). man as the head of his wife like Jesus is the head of the church.

Radical and conservative force

Radical- religion helps change society

Conservative- religion keeps society the same

CONSERVATIVE

Marxism- religion is conservative because it acts as a false spiritual compensator keeping us passive so that we continue to be exploited and therefore society does not change. Without religion being an opiate, we might try and change society.

Functionalism

• Malinowski: religion gives us comfort in times of difficulty so we do not seek change.

• Durkheim: religion creates social solidarity so we feel like members of a ‘club’ and do not seek change. e.g. blood pressure pills means we continue having a poor lifestyle

RADICAL

Max Weber

Banks: banks make money by taking deposits from customers and then lending money/ buying shares/assets that give them a profit. They then share a percentage of the profit with the person who made the deposit through interest.

• the existence of banks to lend money is very important in allowing the economy to grow because banks provide capital credit to people to start new businesses and innovate on new ideas. Without this it would be very difficult to create new businesses.

Protestant reformation, 1517

• started by Martin Luther in Wittenberg who nailed 95 Theses to door of All Saints Church.

• complaints about the conduct of the catholic church:

1. indulgences- things that could be bought by the family of someone who had died that would reduce the time they would spend in purgatory.
→ Luther felt that these would not help someone get to heaven and that they were manipulative e.g. Tetzel: sold ‘strong’ indulgences- he claimed that even if one were to rape the virgin mary they could still ascend directly to heaven.
2. absentee priests- this means that people could not have communion meaning they feared they would go to hell.
3. married priests- Luther was angry that priests were breaking their vows of chastity, poverty and obedience.

• 1520, Luther’s idea had grown in popularity and Pope Leo invited him to a debate to try and trick him into saying something bad to get him imprisoned. Debated Eck who backed him into a corner so Luther calls the Pope the AntiChrist.

• Pope then wants him killed, but Luther’s supporters help hide him for several years. His fame and influence only grows and eventually the catholic church splits and Protestantism is born.

Protestant ideas

1. Asceticism- living a humble rather than a lavish lifestyle

2. Vocation- all work is a calling from God

3. Predestination- fate of your soul is known before you are even born. (logically this would mean people could act however they wished and it would not make any difference. however this is not what happened, instead people wanted to believe that they were chosen for heaven and acted well in hope that this showed they deserved salvation)

Predestination + Vocation + Ascetism: this protestant work ethic created an environment where people earn a bit more but did not spend it and instead put it in banks.

• banks could then lend that money which they did to people who wanted to develop new ideas.

• the new ideas funded by this money created the industrial revolution which changed society.

therefore, religion is a radical force.

Neo Marxism

Dual character of religion: normally is a conservative force but can be a radical force (depending on the circumstances)

Billings: studied a community with both coal miners and textile workers. Both groups were demographically similar (e.g. age, gender, ethnicity) yet the coal miners were paid considerably more. Due to having lay preachers (part of laity/congregation who preach occasionally but are not paid) who had status so could negotiate better pay and conditions on behalf of the workers, while the textile workers lacked this representation. religion bringing positive change in society through lay preachers.

Bloch: in the right circumstances, religion can inspire change as it provides hope through providing a utopia (e.g. heaven). It is a principle of hope. e.g. Martin Luther King Jr- his ‘I have a dream’ speech/sermon evoked religion as means to unify people behind a vision or hope for a future without racism and create reform.

• talks about “when all of God’s children” → will all be able to sing about freedom together.

• christian faith/idea of heaven encouraged reform and abolishment of racism.

Secularisation

Secularisation: process of religion declining in society through the decline of beliefs, practices and institutions.

• 1851- 40%, 2020- 4% (adults attending church)

• since 1983 adults with no religion has risen from a 1/3 to a 1/2

• Clergy: 1900- 45000 → 2000- 34,000
  - fewer people going so fewer clergy needed
  - fewer churches so fewer clergy needed

Explanations for secularisation

1. rationalisation, weber- society no longer uses religion to explain the world around us meaning it has become less important.
   - the enlightenment lead to a period of disenchantment meaning we stopped understanding the world as being enchanted or mystical but instead as something we could understand e.g. understanding gravity, evolution.
   - therefore developed a technological/ scientific worldview rather than a religious one.

2. structural differentiation, parsons- the church had a generalised role but as these roles have been replaced by specialists institutions the role of the church has declined.
   - shops were specialist institutions e.g. butchers, greengrocers → now become more generalised institutions where focus is on providing a range of services e.g. TESCO, Amazon.
   - churches were generalised institutions but have now become more specialist.