Rhetorical Vocabulary Study
abstract (n.) An abbreviated synopsis of a longer work of scholarship and research. (adj.) Dealing with or tending to deal with a subject apart from a particular or specific instance.
ad hominem Literally, “against the man.” An argument directed against a person rather than the position he is maintaining.
Example: The politician uttered vicious ad hominem attacks when she called her opponent’s wife fat and ugly.
adage A saying or proverb containing a truth based on experience and often couched in metaphorical language.
Example: “There is more than one way to skin a cat.”
allegory A story in which a second meaning is to be read beneath the surface of the literal story.
alliteration The repetition of one or more initial consonant sounds in a group of words or lines in a poem.
allusion A reference to a person, place, or event meant to create an effect or enhance the meaning of an idea.
ambiguity A vagueness of meaning; a conscious lack of clarity meant to evoke multiple meanings or interpretations.
anachronism A person, scene, event, or other element that fails to correspond with the appropriate time or era.
Example: Columbus sailing to the United States.
analogy A comparison that points out similarities between two dissimilar things; a passage that points out several similarities between two unlike things is called an extended analogy
anecdote A brief narrative often used to illustrate an idea or make a point.
annotation A brief explanation, summary, or evaluation of a text or work of literature.
antagonist A character or force in a work of literature that, by opposing the protagonist, produces tension or conflict.
antecedent A word to which a pronoun refers.
antithesis A rhetorical opposition or contrast of ideas by means of a grammatical arrangement of words, clauses, or sentences, as in the following:
“They promised freedom but provided slavery.”
“Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.”
aphorism A short, pithy statement of a generally-accepted truth or sentiment. Also see adage and maxim.
Apollonian In contrast to Dionysian, it refers to the most noble, godlike qualities of human nature and behavior.
apostrophe A locution that addresses a person not present or a personified thing. Example: “Oh, you stupid computer! Why won’t you cooperate?”
arch (adj.) Characterized by clever or sly humor, often saucy, playful, and somewhat irreverent.
archetype An abstract or ideal conception of a type; a perfectly typical example; an original model or form.
assonance The repetition of two or more vowel sounds in a group of words in prose or poetry.
asyndeton The omission of the conjunctions that ordinarily join coordinate words or clauses
Example: “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
bard A poet; in olden times, a performer who told heroic stories to musical accompaniment.
bathos Anticlimax.
belle-lettres A French term for the world of books, criticism, and literature in general.
bibliography A list of works cited or otherwise relevant to a particular subject.
bombast Inflated, pretentious language.
burlesque A work of literature meant to ridicule a subject; a grotesque imitation.
cacophony Grating, inharmonious sounds.
canon The works considered most important in a national literature or period; works widely read and studied.
caricature A grotesque likeness of striking qualities in persons and things.
carpe diem Literally, “seize the day”; enjoy life while you can, a common theme in life and literature.
circumlocution Literally, “talking around” a subject; i.e. discourse that avoids direct reference to a subject.
classic A highly regarded work of literature or other art form that has withstood the test of time.
classical, classicism Deriving from the orderly qualities of ancient Greek and Roman culture; implies formality, objectivity, simplicity, and restraint.
clause A structural element of a sentence, consisting of a grammatical subject and a predicate.
Independent clauses, sometimes called main clauses, may stand on their own as complete sentences; dependent clauses, which are nouns as modifiers, are incomplete sentences and may not stand alone grammatically. Dependent clauses are sometimes called subordinate clauses. Dependent clauses that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs, are known, respectively, as adjectival, noun and adverbial clauses.
climax The high point, or turning point, of a story or play.
comparison and contrast A mode of discourse in which two or more things are compared and contrasted. Comparison often refers to similarities, contrast to differences.
conceit A witty or ingenious thought; a diverting or highly fanciful idea, often stated in figurative language.
concrete detail A highly specific, particular, often real, actual, or tangible detail; the opposite of abstract.
connotation The suggested or implied meaning of a word or definition. Contrast with denotation.
consonance The repetition of two or more consonant sounds in a group of words or a unit or speech or writing.
critique An analysis or assessment of a thing or situation for the purpose of determining its nature, its limitations, and its conformity to a set of standards.
cynic One who expects and observes nothing but the worst of human conduct.
deductive reasoning A method of reasoning by which specific definitions, conclusions, and theorems are drawn from general principles.
denotation The dictionary definition of a word. Contrast with connotation.
denouement The resolution that occurs at the end of a narrative or drama, real or imagined.
descriptive detail Graphic, exact, and accurate presentation of characteristics of a person, place, or thing.
deus ex machina In literature, the use of an artificial device or gimmick to solve a problem.
diction The use of words in oral and written discourse.
didactic Having an instructive purpose; intending to convey information or teach a lesson, usually in a dry, pompous manner.
digression That portion of discourse that wanders, or departs from the main subject or topic.
Dionysian As distinguished from Apollonian, the word refers to sensual, pleasure-seeking impulses.
dramatic irony A circumstance in which the audience or reader knows more about a situation than a character.
elegy A poem or prose selection that laments or meditates on the passing or death of someone or something of value. The adjective describing an elegy is elegiac.
ellipsis Three periods (. . .) indicating the omission of words in a thought or quotation.
elliptical construction A sentence containing a deliberate omission of words, In the sentence, “May was hot and June the same,” the verb was is omitted from the second clause.
empathy A feeling of association or identification with an object or person.
epic A narrative poem that tells of the adventures and exploits of a hero.
epigram A concise but ingenious, witty, and thoughtful statement.
euphony Pleasing, harmonious sounds.
epithet An adjective or phrase that expresses a striking quality of a person or thing; sun-bright topaz, sun-lit lake, and sun-bright lake are examples.
eponymous A term for the title character of a work of literature.
euphemism A mild or less negative usage for a harsh or blunt term. Example: pass away is a euphemism for to die.
exegesis A detailed analysis or interpretation of prose or poetry.
expose A piece of writing that reveals weaknesses, faults, frailties, or other shortcomings.
exposition The background and events that lead to the presentation of the main idea or purpose of an essay or other work; setting forth the meaning or purpose of a piece of writing or discourse.
explication The interpretation or analysis of a text.
extended metaphor a series of comparisons between two unlike objects.
fable A short tale often with nonhuman characters from which a useful lesson may be drawn.
fallacy, fallacious reasoning An incorrect belief or supposition based on faulty data, defective evidence, or false information.
fantasy A story containing unreal, imaginary features.
farce A comedy that contains an extravagant and nonsensical disregard of seriousness, although it may have a serious, scornful purpose.
figure of speech, figurative language In contrast to literal language, figurative language implies meanings. Figures of speech include, among many others, metaphor, simile, and personification.
frame A structure that provides a premise or setting for a narrative or other discourse.
Example: a group of pilgrims exchanging stories while on the road is the frame for Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales.
genre A term used to describe literary forms, such as novel, play, and essay.
harangue A forceful sermon, lecture, or tirade.
hubris Excessive pride that often affects tone.
humanism A belief that emphasizes faith and optimism in human potential and creativity.
hyperbole Overstatement; gross exaggeration for rhetorical effect.
idyll A lyric poem or passage that describes a kind of ideal life or place.
image A word or phrase representing that which can be seen, touched, tasted, smelled, or felt; imagery is the use of images in speech and writing.
indirect quotation A rendering of a quotation in which actual works are not stated but only approximated or paraphrased.
inductive reasoning A method of reasoning in which a number of specific facts or examples are used to make a generalization. Its opposite is deductive reasoning.
inference A conclusion or proposition arrived at by considering facts, observations, or some other specific data.
invective A direct verbal assault; a denunciation; casting blame on someone or something.
irony A mode of expression in which the intended meaning is the opposite of what is stated, often implying ridicule or light sarcasm; a state of affairs or events that is the reverse of what might have been expected.
kenning A device employed in Anglo-Saxon poetry in which the name of a thing is replaced by one of its functions or qualities, as in “ring-giver” for king and “whale-road” for ocean.
lampoon A mocking, satirical assault on a person or situation.
litotes A form of understatement in which the negative of the contrary is used to achieve emphasis or intensity. Example: He is not a bad dancer.
loose sentence A sentence that follows the customary word order of English sentences, i.e., subject-verb-object. The main idea of the sentence is presented first and is then followed by one or more subordinate clauses. See also periodic sentence.
lyrical prose Personal, reflective prose that reveals the speaker’s thoughts and feelings about the subject.
malapropism A confused use of words in which the appropriate word is replaced by one with a similar sound but inappropriate meaning.
maxim A saying or proverb expressing common wisdom or truth. See also adage and aphorism.
melodrama A literary form in which events are exaggerated in order to create an extreme emotional response.
metaphor A figure of speech that compares unlike objects. When several characteristics of the same object are compared, the device is called an extended metaphor. A metaphor referring to a particular person, place, or thing is called a metaphorical allusion; for example, referring to someone as “a Hercules.”
metaphysical A term describing poetry that uses elaborate conceits, expresses the complexities of love and life, and is highly intellectual. More generally, metaphysical refers to ideas that are neither analytical nor subject to empirical verification; that is, ideas that express an attitude about which rational argument is impossible.
metonymy A figure of speech that uses the name of one thing to represent something else with which it is associated. Example: “The White House says…”
Middle English The language spoken in in England roughly between 1150 and 1500 AD
mock epic A parody of traditional epic form
mock solemnity Feigned or deliberately artificial seriousness, often for satirical purposes
mode The general form, pattern, and manner of expression of a piece of discourse
montage A quick succession of images of impression used to express an idea.
mood The emotional time or prevailing atmosphere in a piece of literature or other discourse. In grammar, mood refers to the intent of a particular sentence. The indicative mood is used for statements of fact; subjunctive mood is used to express doubt or a conditional attitude; sentences in the imperative mood give command
moral A brief often simplistic lesson that a reader may infer from a work of literature.
motif A phrase, idea, or event that through repetition serves to unify or convey a theme in an essay or other discourse.
muse (noun) One of the ancient Greek goddesses presiding over the arts; the imaginary source of inspiration for an artist or writer. (verb) To reflect deeply, to ponder.
myth An imaginary story that has become an accepted part of the cultural or religious traditions of a group or society.
narrative A form of verse or prose (both fiction and nonfiction) that tells a story. A storyteller may use any number of narrative devices, such as skipping back and forth in time, ordering events chronologically, and ordering events to lead up to a suspenseful climax. Also see frame.
Naturalism A term often used as a synonym for realism; also a view of experience that is generally characterized as bleak and pessimistic.
non sequitur a statement or idea that fails to follow logically from the one above.
objective (adj.) Of or relating to facts and reality, as opposed to private and personal feelings and attitudes. Its opposite is subjective.
ode a lyric poem usually marked by serious, respectful, and exalted feelings toward the subject.
Old English The Anglo-Saxon language spoken from approximately 450-1150 A.D. in what is now Great Britain.
omniscient narrator A narrator with unlimited awareness, understanding, and insight of characters, setting, background, and all other elements of the story.
onomatopoeia The use of words whose sound suggests their meaning.
Example: bubbling, murmuring brooks.
oxymoron A term consisting of contradictory elements juxtaposed to create a paradoxical effect.
Examples: jumbo shrimp, loud silence.
parable a story consisting of events from which a moral or spiritual truth may be derived.
paradox A statement that seems self-contradictory but is nevertheless true.
parallel structure The structure required for expressing two or more grammatical elements of equal rank. Coordinate ideas, compared and contrasted ideas, and correlative constructions call for parallel structure.
Example: Colleges favor applicants with good academic records, varied interests, and they should earn high scores on the AP exams.
The underlined section of the sentence lacks the same grammatical form as the italicized phrases. To be correct it should read high scores.
parody An imitation of a work meant to ridicule its style and subject.
paraphrase A version of a text put into simpler, everyday words.
pastoral A work of literature dealing with rural life.
pathetic fallacy Faulty reasoning that inappropriately ascribes human feelings to nature or nonhuman objects.
pathos The element in literature that stimulates pity or sorrow.
pedantic Narrowly academic instead of broad and humane; excessively petty and meticulous.
periodic sentence A sentence that departs from the usual word order of English sentences by expressing its main thought only at the end. In other words, the particulars in the sentence are presented before the ideas they support. See also loose sentence.
Persona The role or facade that a character assumes or depicts to a reader or other audience.
Personification A figure of speech in which objects and animals are given human characteristics.
Plot The interrelationship among the events in a story; the plot line is the pattern of events, including exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Point of view The relation in which a narrator or speaker stands to a subject of discourse. A matter discussed in the first person has an internal point of view; an observer uses an external point of view.
Polysyndeton The repetition of conjunctions in close succession
Example: We have ships and men and money.
Predicate The part of the sentence that is not the grammatical subject. It often says something about the subject.
A noun that provides another name for the subject is called a predicate nominative, as in
Lynn (subject) is the president (predicate nominative) of the company.
An adjective that describes the subject is called a predicate adjective, as in
Harold (subject) is courageous (predicate adjective).
Prose Any discourse that is not poetry. A prose poem is a selection of prose that, because of its language or content, is poetic in nature.
Proverb A short pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience into memorable form. See also adage and maxim.
pseudonym A false name or alias used by writers.
pulp fiction Novels written for mass consumption, often emphasizing exciting and titillating plots.
pun A humorous play on words, using similar-sounding or identical words to suggest different meanings.
Realism The depiction of people, things, and events as they really are without idealization or exaggeration for effect. See also Naturalism.
rebuttal or refutation The part of discourse wherein opposing arguments are anticipated and answered.
reiteration Repetition of an idea using different words, often for emphasis or other effect.
repetition Reuse of the same words, phrases, or ideas for rhetorical effect, usually to emphasize a point.
retraction The withdrawal of a previously stated idea or opinion.
rhetoric The language of a work and its style; words, often highly emotional, used to convince or sway an audience.
rhetorical mode A general term that identifies discourse according to its chief purpose. Modes include exposition (to explain, analyze, or discuss an idea), argumentation (to prove a point or to persuade), description (to recreate or present with details), and narration (to relate an anecdote or story).
rhetorical question A question to which the audience already knows the answer; a question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.
rhetorical stance Language that conveys a speaker’s attitude or opinion with regard to a particular subject.
rhyme The repetition of similar sounds at regular intervals, used mostly in poetry but not unheard of in prose.
rhythm The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables that make up speech and writing.
romance An extended narrative about improbable events and extraordinary people in exotic places.
sarcasm A sharp caustic attitude conveyed in words through jibes, taunts, or other remarks; sarcasm differs from irony, which is more subtle.
satire A literary style used to poke fun at, attack, or ridicule an idea, vice, or foible, often for the purpose of inducing change.
sentence structure The arrangement of the parts of a sentence. A sentence may be simple (one subject and one verb), compound (two or more independent clauses joined by a conjunction), or complex (an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses). Sentences may also contain any of these structures in combination with each other. Each variation leaves a different impression on the reader, and along with other rhetorical devices, may create a countless array of effects.
sentiment A synonym for view or feeling; also a refined and tender emotion in literature.
sentimental A term that describes characters’ excessive emotional response to experience; also nauseatingly nostalgic and mawkish.
setting An environment that consists of time, place, historical milieu, and social, political, and even spiritual circumstances.
simile A figurative comparison using the words like, as, or than.
Example: She sings like a canary.
stream of consciousness A style of writing in which the author tries to reproduce the random flow of thoughts in the human mind.
style The manner in which an author uses and arranges words, shapes images, forms sentences, and creates structure to convey ideas.
stylistic devices A general term referring to diction, syntax, tone, figurative language, and all the other elements that contribute to the “style,” or manner of a given piece of discourse.
subject complement The name of a grammatical unit that is composed of predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.
subjective (adj.) Of or relating to private and personal feelings and attitudes as opposed to facts and reality. Its opposite is objective.
subtext The implied meaning that underlies the main meaning of an essay or other work.
syllogism A form of deductive reasoning in which given certain ideas or facts, other ideas or facts must follow, as in All men are mortal; Mike is a man; therefore, Mike is mortal.
symbolism The use of one object to evoke ideas and associations not literally part of the original object.
EXAMPLE: The American flag may symbolize freedom, the fifty states, and the American way of life, among many other things.
synecdoche A figure of speech in which a part signifies the whole (fifty masts for fifty ships) or the whole signifies the part (days for life, as in “He lived his days under African skies). When the name of a material stands for the thing itself, as in pigskin for football, that, too, is synecdoche.
syntax The organization of language into meaningful structure; every sentence has a particular syntax, or pattern of words.
theme The main idea or meaning, often an abstract idea, upon which an essay or other form of discourse is built.
thesis The main idea of a piece of discourse; the statement or proposition that a speaker or writer wishes to advance, illustrate, prove, or defend.
tone The author’s attitude towards the subject being written about. The tone is the characteristic emotion that pervades a work or part of a work--the spirit or quality of that is the work’s emotional essence.
tragedy A form of literature in which the hero is destroyed by some character flaw and by a set of forces that cause the hero considerable anguish.
transition A stylistic device used to create a link between ideas. Transitions often endow discourse with continuity and coherence.
trope The generic name for a figure of speech such as an image, symbol, simile, and metaphor.
understatement A restrained statement that departs from what could be said; a studied avoidance of emphasis or exaggeration, often to create a particular effect.
verbal irony A discrepancy between the true meaning of a situation and the literal meaning of the written or spoken words.
verse A synonym for poetry; also a group of lines in a song or poem; also a single line of poetry.
verisimilitude Similar to the truth; the quality of realism in a work that persuades readers that they are getting a vision of life as it is.
voice The real or assumed personality used by a writer or speaker. In grammar, active voice and passive voice refer to the use of verbs. A verb is in the active voice when it expresses an action performed by its subject. A verb is in the passive voice when it expresses an action performed upon its subject or when the subject is the result of the action.
ACTIVE: The crew raked the leaves.
PASSIVE: The leaves were raked by the crew.
Stylistically, the active voice leads to more economical and vigorous writing.
whimsy An object, device, or creation that is fanciful or rooted in unreality.
wit The quickness of intellect and the power and talent for saying brilliant things that surprise and delight by their unexpectedness; the power to comment subtly and pointedly on the foibles of the passing scene.