History Notes - Medieval Times
6.2 The Migration Period
Began around the fourth century.
Resulted in the downfall of the Western Roman Empire.
Germanic tribes (Franks, Saxons, Jutes, Vandals, Goths, Angles) took over Roman territories.
Power struggles among these tribes were common.
6.2.1 Clovis and the Franks
In 481, Clovis became king of the Franks.
Transformed the Frankish Kingdom into the most powerful realm in Western Europe.
Clovis's conversion to Christianity led the Franks to adopt the faith.
After his death in 511, the kingdom was divided among his four sons, following Germanic inheritance practices.
6.2.1 Charlemagne
In 768, Charlemagne (Charles the Great) was crowned King of the Franks.
Expanded the kingdom by conquering other Germanic tribes.
Promoted Christianity with the clergy's support.
Medieval society was hierarchical, with clergy at the top, causing tension with the nobility.
6.2.1 Papal Coronation of Charlemagne
In 795, Leo III became Pope and faced opposition.
Leo III fled Rome and sought Charlemagne's help.
Charlemagne restored order in Rome.
In 800, Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
This united Western Europe under an empire nearly 400 years after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
6.2.2 Governance Under Charlemagne
Charlemagne ruled without an official capital, traveling with his royal court to enforce laws.
Limitations: He couldn't be everywhere at once; maintaining a large, permanent army was financially unfeasible.
These challenges led to the establishment of feudalism.
Feudal System
Charlemagne was the supreme feudal lord.
Nobles (vassals) supported him in warfare, tax collection, and maintaining peace in exchange for land parcels called fiefs.
Nobles often divided their fiefs among their own vassals, creating a hierarchy where one could be both a vassal and a lord.
Knights served as warriors for the feudal lords.
Feudalism eventually led to the fragmentation of empires.
Initially, fiefs reverted to the feudal lord upon a vassal's death.
Vassals began passing their lands to their sons, reducing the lord's control.
Some vassals neglected their duties or became wealthier and more powerful than their lords, further weakening the feudal structure.
6.3 Life After the Western Roman Empire
Life became more challenging for common people after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.
Without Roman protection, borders declined, leading to decreased money and trade.
Many urban dwellers moved to the countryside to work as farmers on land owned by lords who offered protection.
Peasants formed the lowest tier in medieval society.
Clergy and nobility focused on administration and governance.
Lords managed land for their feudal superiors, often the king.
The demesne was the part of the land used for the lord's household needs, including a manor house and smaller farmhouses for peasants.
Some manor houses evolved into fortified structures or castles, providing sanctuary during conflicts.
Peasants paid taxes to their lords through a share of their harvest or labor, ensuring the nobility had enough food without farming themselves.
6.3.2 Life of Serfs
Life for medieval peasants, or serfs, was challenging.
They depended on lords for protection and rented land from them.
Serfs couldn't leave the land without permission and had to give part of their harvest to the lord.
They also performed various duties like road maintenance and military service.
This system, where lords and serfs coexisted on a manor, is called manorialism.
Agricultural Advancements
The Early Middle Ages faced agricultural challenges due to overused land.
To improve farming, Charlemagne and others introduced the three-field system.
Farmland was divided into three parts: one for winter wheat, one for summer crops, and one left fallow to recover.
This rotation kept the soil fertile.
7.2 Medieval Agrarian Society
Most people were farmers living in the countryside.
From the tenth century onwards, several agricultural inventions increased production:
Three-field system: Already in use during the Early Middle Ages, this crop rotation method kept soil fertile.
Land reclamation: Farmers transformed forests, swamps, and wetlands into productive farmland using dikes, canals, and pumps.
Heavy plough: Introduced around 1000, it ploughed soil more deeply than earlier wooden ploughs.
Horse collar: Allowed oxen and horses to use their full strength without airway pressure, leading to horses gradually replacing oxen for heavier loads and longer periods.
These advancements significantly boosted agricultural productivity.
7.2.3 Trade and Population Growth
From the year 1000, Viking raids diminished, leading to a more peaceful era in Europe.
This allowed tradespeople and merchants to travel freely, buying agricultural surpluses and selling them widely.
This trade reduced famines and contributed to population growth.
Merchants traveled long distances, buying and selling goods at markets near castles, churches, crossroads, river forks, and coastal ports.
These markets led to the founding of new cities, and between 950 and 1300, Europe's population doubled.
Increased food production meant fewer people needed to work as farmers.
New professions emerged in cities, and Europe transitioned back to an urban-agrarian society.
The growth in trade increased coin circulation, marking the return of the European monetary economy.
7.3 Evolution of Cities
Gradually, trading posts evolved into cities in the Middle Ages.
Nobles or clergy governed these cities, not the merchants.
City dwellers, especially merchants, were unhappy with this arrangement due to the lords' limited knowledge of commerce and their treatment of residents like serfs.
Merchants lobbied for town privileges or city rights, allowing them to govern their cities and establish laws.
These citizens, known as burghers, formed the medieval bourgeoisie.
In exchange for privileges, burghers paid taxes and supported their lord in wartime.
Burghers benefited from constructing city walls for protection and electing government officials called schepenen, supervised by burgomasters.
The schout, appointed by the lord, managed administrative duties, public order, and justice, overseeing the municipal court with the schepenen.
Strict governance was crucial for successful trade, the backbone of any city.
7.3.2 City Life and Guilds
In medieval cities, people earned a living through trade and craftsmanship.
Merchants bought and sold goods, while artisans created and sold their own products.
Guilds, such as those for merchants, carpenters, and bakers, set strict guidelines for work quality and practices.
Becoming a master in a guild required progressing from apprentice to journeyman and creating a masterpiece.
Guild members supported each other, unlike unskilled laborers who relied on charity.
Although medieval cities had hygiene issues, recent findings show efforts were made to maintain cleanliness.
Citizens were responsible for keeping their surroundings clean, and keeping rivers free of rubbish was crucial for trade.
7.4 England and France
England and France, now collaborative nations, have a history of conflicts.
7.4.1 Norman Conquest
A key event was the 1066 war over the English throne's succession.
After the childless king's death, Harold II of England and William, Duke of Normandy, both claimed the throne.
Harold became king, but William invaded, winning the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066.
Harold died, and William became King of England, known as William the Conqueror.
English nobles and clergy were unhappy with William, who centralized government to increase his power.
He seized lands from English nobles, giving them to loyal Norman and French nobles.
William also centralized the justice system, reducing the clergy's income and increasing his own power and wealth.
7.4.2 Hundred Years' War
The peace after the Battle of Hastings was brief.
In 1337, England and France clashed in the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) over the French throne and Aquitaine.
Edward III of England claimed the throne, and tensions rose when Philip VI of France occupied Aquitaine.
England dominated early with longbows, winning battles like Crécy in 1346.
The war's dynamics changed with Burgundy ending its alliance with England and Joan of Arc inspiring French troops to reclaim territories.
Joan was burned at the stake in 1431, but France regained all its lands by the war's end.
7.5.3 Crusades and the Holy Land
After the Christian conquest of Jerusalem, Muslims united under General Saladin, gradually reclaiming Crusader states.
In 1187, Christians were defeated at the Battle of Hattin, and Saladin conquered Jerusalem, allowing inhabitants to buy their freedom.
Europe reacted with disappointment, leading to a new crusade led by Richard the Lionheart.
Despite his successes, he couldn't regain
Jerusalem.
Subsequent crusades failed, and Jerusalem briefly returned to Christian hands (1229-1244) before being permanently held by Muslims.
By the end of the thirteenth century, Muslims remained the dominant power in the Holy Land.
In the following years, various attempts were made to reconcile the Christian and Muslim claims to the region, but none were successful, leading to a prolonged period of conflict.
1095: start of the first crusade
1099: jeruzalem taken by the crusaders