Social science
Section 1: Thinking Geographically
What is human Geography
Human geography is the study of how human activities vary across different locations and how places change over time
It has been affected by the progress in technology and scientific research
Spatial perspective- why particular things occur in particular places, relationship of nearby locations
Maps visually display spatial information which are a tool for geographers, they vary by detail and area displayed.
Cartography refers to the discipline and methodology of creating visual representations of the earths surface.
Maps
Geographical thinking- understanding complex processes at different geographical scales
Geographers study processes of environment, culture and population patterns
Experts can explain the different populations that have moved to or from an area, how such migration affects that place and how population processes link globally.
Absolute location= precise position of a place determined by a grid system,
coordinate system= used to pinpoint exact locations of features on earths surface
Main categories of maps- Reference and thematic maps
Reference maps - facilitates navigation
Globes: provide details of locations helping users navigate effectively,
Political: navigation with showing boundaries, capitals and urban areas
Physical: depict landforms, mountains, rivers and deserts
Road: depict transportation routes (streets, highways)
Topographic: usage of isolines which use lines to connect areas with equal elevation ensuring a steady path
Thematic maps - illustrate variables (population size or income) across regions, focusing on datasets that reveal patterns and trends
Choropleth maps: Display data variation across locations utilizing shades or colors to show density
Dot distribution: data frequency through dot locations
isoline: connect equal valued points showing relationships across locations
Some thematic maps use exaggerations to communicate data differences
Graduated symbol: compare data quantity across an area with varied sized symbols, Large= high density
Flowline: varied sized arrows → movement, directions and intensity of data, Ex- relative sized arrows show migration patterns
Cartogram: distortions on landscape to demonstrate variables, Ex: global population differences→ shrink/ stretch of continents size
mental map: Internal perception of surroundings used to navigate without a reference
Accessibility and Absolute distance (measurable span using units of length) - the less distance between two locations the more accessible and exchange of effects (language, resources or disease)
Distance decay effect- reduction of interactions b/w locations as spatial separation grows
Geographers use separation to anticipate how close effects are linked
Globalization is characterized by the increasing connections among individuals, ideas, and economies globally.
innovations ranging from carriages to steam engines, jumbo jets and the internet have progressively facilitated an interconnected and accessible global landscape
Relative location assists with navigation; it is the description of where a place is based on what is nearby
Variables can connect to demonstrate data differentiation by location
Clustering - describes close grouping of factors within a location
Dispersal - random distribution of data across a location
Elevation- how high areas are above sea level
Geographers primarily use three scales - Ratio, written, and graphic scales
Ratio scales- relationship between distance on a map and actual ground distance in ratio
Written scales- difference between real and portrayed distance units written out
Graphic scales- segmented bar each segment corresponding to a specific distance
Earth has a geoid form characterized by its irregularity and slight flattening at the poles resulting in a spherical shape.
Projection - process of transferring geographical locations onto a flat map, which cause distortions
Geographers rely on several types of projection each having advantages and disadvantages in their representation of reality
Mercator projections: preserve shape and direction, ideal for navigation but disort size near poles (make Greenland appear larger)
peters projections: shows sizes correctly but alters shapes of landmass
Equal-area projections: accurate sizes but not shape
Robinsons projections: visually appealing world maps
Cartographers choose which information to prioritize, simplify or exclude
Geographic data
Geographers combine personal observations with technologies to make and interpret maps
Geographic data- provides information about locations allowing geographers to identify patterns and study human- environment interactions.
two types of geographic data: spatial data and nonspatial data, both important for addressing geographic questions
spatial data- physical information about a location received from references (maps, satellite images and coordinates)
Non spatial data- characteristic of a location such as population, income or land use
Geographic data is analyzed to see how human actions impact the natural world
Methods to collect data usually technological or rely on observers' senses
Field data- geographic information collected by experts onsite, valuable data → surveys, interviews and photographs
Advanced devices operate over great distances and gather/store high volumes of data. →
Geographic information system- impose layers of data onto a location to reveal connections and patterns, EX: combining population stats with grocery store locations, GIS can identify area lacking access to quality foods
Global Positioning system- relies on location data to pinpoint an objects position, EX: cell phones, vehicles, delivery trucks depend on GPS to navigate accurately
Remote sensing- utilizes satellites and aircraft to gather spatial information→ allowing mapping of wide regions, monitoring of weather changes and studies of interactions with surroundings
Types of geographic data→
Quantitative data: statistical models used to present and analyze locations
Qualitative data: linked to a human- centered perspective, typically gathered by interviews, observations and analyzation.
Toponyms- name identifiers of locations and natural features/ characteristics of a location shaped by natural processes (lakes, mountains)
Human features- characteristics of a location shaped by a human process such as cities, roads and townships
Technologies allow the examination of human land use and implications, types of land use → Residential use: how people adapt to natural spaces, Agricultural use: production of natural resourced for consumption, commercial use: application of locations and resources to generate economic value, Industrial use: allocation of land and materials for manufacturing
Cultural landscape- natural environment altered by humans to reflect the characteristics of a culture or society
Technologies like GPS and phone applications enable the determination of population and demographic variables (age, ethnicity and death rates) within a region which is necessary for geographers’ analysis of spatial patterns and causes
Geographic data amplifies business capabilities and broadens their impact on both cultural and natural environments, influence decisions on placement of public buildings, guides construction of roads and transportation network, helps govt agencies prepare for natural emergencies.
Census data is collected to gather basic demographic details such as race and housing status, understanding population density can guide where funding is distributed and where services are enhanced
Gerrymandering- configuration of voting boundaries to favor a particular political party. it illustrates the political ramifications of geographic data such as manipulation or overcounting to increase funding.
Spatial concepts
Spatial concepts- represent essential principles that geographers use to analyze places helping understand how locations connect and display patterns
enable geographers to clearly explain the reasons behind geographic phenomena
Geographers mention although absolute location typically remains unchanged, relative location can vary on the reference point used.
Distinguishing between place and space is essential to clarify the significance and context of locations and variables interacting across the space between them.
Each place has a specific value and is shaped by physical characteristics or by qualities that humans attribute to it, EX: a cave is a naturally formed place while a coffee shop is a creation of human activity
space is the area between places including how objects are arranged and ordered within it.
Flow- illustrates how people, money, cultural attributes, technology and etc. move from one place to another. Ex: the silk road allowed the exchange of goods, religion and philosophical concepts between Europe and Asia
types of Diffusion- how variables spread across a space such as culture, language, technology, and diseases
Relocation diffusion- when something spreads through the movement and migration of people, ex: a language brought by immigrants.
Expansion diffusion- something originates from a single point and grows outward, ex: inventions gaining popularity
Hierarchical diffusion- ideas or products spread from wealthier or more powerful groups to others such as celebrities driving luxury cars influence wider adoption
Contagious diffusion- rapid or widespread transmission of factors, such as infectious diseases
stimulus diffusion- A factor adapts to a new location. religions blend elements from other faiths
Human- Environmental interaction
Humans use both renewable resources and non-renewable resources from their environment
Renewable resources such as solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy, replenish naturally over time
Nonrenewable resources including oil, coal, natural gas, and minerals, form over millions of years making them non-replenishable
In some regions excessive use of water and trees makes these energy sources as non-renewable
As resources depended on by humanity begin being less → the need to engage in sustainability: responsible and strategic use of planets assets, considering human resource use and how it impacts current/future generations
Environmental sustainability- protection of ecosystems and preservation of resources from exploitation and degradation.
Economic sustainability- preservation of economic growth while preventing resource or system collapse over time
Social sustainability- establishment of equity and similar health outcomes across places.
Human Interactions with the natural environments can be negative and positive
Environmental determination- Nature determines which human lifestyle and levels of development are possible, environment shapes human culture and actions
Environmental possibilism- environmental factors such as natural resources place limits on human development, humans adapt and modify their environment
Deforestation and habitat destruction contribute to climate change- major shifts in global and regional climate patterns by natural processes and renewable resources consumption
Urban sprawl- rapid expansion of cities into rural land → humans’ impact on environment
Scales of analysis
Scales effect how data is collected and interpreted by geographers; Scale of analysis is the level at which a geographer investigates or presents a location, cartographic perspective (local, national)
Different scales can reveal important patterns in geographic data such as large forest appearing full of resources in a broad scale, but a small scale of a deforested area can make damage more visible.
the use of scale of analysis reduce bias and improve geographers understanding
Global scale- examines the entire earth or system that affect most landscape such as pandemic diseases or global economic relationships
Regional scale- examines countries or portions of a single country
National scale- examines one country or compares data across regions within the country
Local scale - examines neighborhoods, cities or districts revealing patterns such as income levels and ethnic distribution within a community
Regional Analysis
Regions fall into distinct categories and can be defined using different markers and scales, which help predict and clarify spatial patterns and the effect of human activity.
Region is a part of the earth that shares identifiers or activity patterns, helping differentiate and relate places, humans define regions→ shape and size can change over time
Formal region- consistent unifying characteristics often quantified, can include shared language, climate patterns or political boundaries
Functional regions- central node that organizes movement and activity such as systems of communication, transportation, and political organization
Vernacular (perpetual) regions- shared cultural perceptions, depend on a person’s social or geographic perspective
Site and situation- interrelated concepts helping understand place
site- a location physical characteristic such as climate, plant and animal life
situation- how a place connects to another location
Section 2: Cultural patterns and processes
Introduction to culture
Cultural geography- the study of how cultures differ across space, change over time and spread to new locations
Material culture- a physical component of culture, like tools, apparel and documents
Nonmaterial culture- nonphysical components, like language, moral principles and social practices
Sociofacts- structures and institutions that organize and affect social norms, like educational and religious institutions
Menti facts- shared ideals, values and belief systems shaping culture, like political, moral and social views
Cultural hearth- origin location of a culture
produced most significant developments (systems of language, warfare, agriculture and society) in west societies- west Africa, the Nile river valley, the Indus river valley, the Huang he valley, the Ganges river delta, Mesopotamia and central America.
Cultural traits- singular aspects of culture; language, cuisine and fashion
Cultural complexes- groups of cultural traits that cluster and exchange effects
Cultural systems- groups of cultural complexes that define broad features of culture; how religion, education and politics function in society
Culture is divided in two main categories - Folk culture: characteristic of small, isolated and unified groups like rural groups and indigenous groups. Popular culture: characteristics of large, dense and divers groups like urban centers.
Foods eaten in a culture depend on the environment in which that culture exists and what agricultural processes it makes possible
societal norms define what is eaten through food taboos- social, cultural and religious prohibitions on particular food
Architecture in folk cultures is usually made from available resources in nearby areas and consider local ecology, architecture in pop cultures is based on what is in style, how technology is advanced and one’s economic status in society.
Modern technology and the increased accessibility of travel have spread cultural elements, the intermixing of elements leads to homogenization(similarity) of cultures
Ethnocentrism- the attitude of judging other cultures values against the values of one’s own culture
Cultural Relativism- the attitude of judging another culture based on the values of that different culture
Cultural Landscapes
A cultural landscape is a geographic area, including its natural and built environments, shaped by human development and use over time. Natural features include landforms, bodies of water and ecosystem while built features include roads, buildings and public spaces.
Cultural landscapes include religious dimensions like temples, shrines and churches
Architecture communicates information about a culture in two categories- Traditional architecture reflects longstanding cultural features of a location, postmodern architecture is more imaginative and symbolic
sequent occupancy- cultural imprints that successive societies leave on a place.
Ethnocentrism and cultural relativism are two attitudes toward cultural differences; the former views other cultures through its own cultural lens, and the latter views other cultures through the other culture’s lens.
Language, religion, architecture, and the use of natural resources and land contribute to the cultural landscape.
Social constructs around gender, ethnicity, race, religion, and other demographic factors affect the cultural landscape.
Cultural landscapes include both centrifugal—dividing—and centripetal—unifying—forces. Social instability is an example of a centrifugal force while shared language is an example of a centripetal force.
Sequent occupancy refers to the traces of layered cultural influence left by multiple cultures in the same place across time.
Cultural legacies, including sequent occupancy, are visible in toponyms, ethnically clustered populations, and locations with a strong sense of place. Differing land survey methods, such as long lot, township and range, rectangular, and metes and bounds, reflect historical processes and cultural patterns. Gender roles shape who has access to different spaces, including public parks and government buildings, and how those spaces are utilized.
Relocation diffusion and expansion diffusion are the two main categories of cultural diffusion. Expansion diffusion can be broken down into three primary categories: hierarchical, stimulus, and contagious.
Maladaptive diffusion occurs when cultural traits reach a new culture but are not well adapted to it.
Violent and coercive forms of cultural diffusion, such as war, colonialism, and imperialism, exist alongside more peaceful means of cultural diffusion, including trade and the transmission of cultural and religious ideas.
When cultures come into contact, there is a range of possible responses that include assimilation, appropriation, creolization, syncretism, multiculturalism, and transculturation.
When dominant cultures influence a marginalized culture, the traits of the marginalized culture can disappear or be significantly modified to match the dominant culture.