Comprehensive Study Guide for History: States, Societies, and Individuals

Ancient Civilizations and Political Systems

• Despotic Governance (Despotism): A form of government where all power is held by a single ruler (a despot). Their status was often perceived as divine, granting nearly unlimited authority. Key features include:

  • Absolute power and the absence of the rule of law.
  • Lack of individual liberties or rights.
  • Systemic repression and slavery.
  • Deification of the ruler.

• Nabuchodonosaras II (Nebuchadnezzar II): Ruler of the Neo-Babylonian Kingdom ($7\text{-}6 \text{ c. BC}$):

  • Military Success: Consolidated Babylonian dominance by relying on the army. He conquered Jerusalem, destroyed Solomon's Temple, and initiated the "Babylonian Captivity" of the Jews.
  • Babylonian Renaissance: Transformed Babylon into the largest and most beautiful city of its time. He constructed the Hanging Gardens (one of the Seven Wonders), the Ishtar Gate, and the massive ziggurat Etemenanki (linked to the Tower of Babel legend).

• Darijus I (Darius I): Ruler of the Persian Empire ($6\text{-}5 \text{ c. BC}$):

  • Imperial Organization: Divided the vast empire into administrative units called SATRAPIES.
  • Satrapies: Provinces governed by a Satrap (governor) responsible for tax collection, maintaining order, and executing the ruler's orders.

• Ancient Egypt Officials:

  • Viziers: The highest officials after the Pharaoh, acting as the ruler's "right hand" to oversee state administration and other officials.
  • Nomarchs: Local rulers of Egyptian districts called Nomes. They managed local taxes, order, and the economy.

• Athenian Democracy: A political system based on citizen participation and rights. Before democracy, Aristocracy (rule by a shrinking hereditary elite) prevailed.

  • Solonas (Solon): ($7\text{-}6 \text{ c. BC}$) Legislator and pioneer of democratic elements. His reforms aimed to involve different professional classes in governance and laws to alleviate citizen debt and poverty.
  • Periklis (Pericles): ($5 \text{ c. BC}$) Politician and general who consolidated Athenian democracy. Reforms included open voting by citizens and the abolition of property qualifications (wealth census).
  • Democratic Institutions:
    • Eklesija (Assembly): The main gathering of male citizens ($18+$ years old) who elected other bodies.
    • Bulė: The supreme state council with executive and advisory functions.
    • Strategai: Military commanders of the city-state (polis).
    • Heliaja: The sworn jury court of Athens.
  • Alternative Systems Criticized by Athenians:
    • Tyranny: Governance based on the absolute power of one person with rightless citizens.
    • Oligarchy: Governance by a small group of wealthy, influential people.

Transition of the Roman State

• Historical Timeline of Rome:

  • Epoch of Kings: $753\text{--}509 \text{ BC}$.
  • Roman Republic: $509\text{--}27 \text{ BC}$ (divided into Early and Late).
    • Featured internal conflicts between Patricians (nobles) and Plebeians (free commoners).
    • Konsulas (Consul): Two officials elected for one year holding supreme civil and military power.
    • Senatas: The highest legislative body, deciding on war, peace, and finance.
  • Roman Empire: $27 \text{ BC--}476 \text{ AD}$.
    • Principatas ($27 \text{ BC--}193 \text{ AD}$): Established by Oktavianas Augustas. The emperor was "Princeps" (first among senators) but held absolute power.
    • Krizė (Crisis): $193\text{--}284 \text{ AD}$.
    • Dominatas ($284\text{--}476 \text{ AD}$): Established by Dioklecianas. Absolute power was formalized; the emperor was viewed as a divine lord (Dominus).

• Dioklecianas (Diocletian) Reforms:

  • Abolished the Principate and established the Tetrarchy (rule by four: two Augusti and two Caesars).
  • Divided the empire into four Prefectures for easier management.
  • Separated military and civil administration and increased the size of the army.

• The Fall of Rome: Internal strife, barbarian invasions, and economic crises (compounded by climate change in the $3\text{--}4 \text{ c. AD}$) led to the split in $395 \text{ AD}$:

  • Western Roman Empire: Collapsed in $476 \text{ AD}$.
  • Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine): Survived for another millennium.

Medieval Monarchy and the Restoration of Empire

• Monarchy Concepts:

  • Dinastija: Successive generations of a family inheriting the throne.
  • Primogenitūra: Tradition where the eldest son has first right to the throne.
  • Vasalitetas: A relationship of dependence where a Senjoras (lord) offers protection and a Feodas (land) to a Vasalas (vassal), who in turn provides military service.
  • Domenas: The hereditary land estate of a noble or monarch, which grew through war and diplomacy.

• Restoring the Imperial Idea:

  • Karolis Didysis (Charlemagne): Frankish King ($768\text{--}814$). He unified much of Western Europe and was crowned Emperor in $800 \text{ AD}$ by Pope Leo III. This created a union between secular and spiritual power.
  • Otonas I (Otto I): ($912\text{--}973$) German King crowned Emperor in $962 \text{ AD}$, founding the Holy Roman Empire. He relied on the Church (bishops) to control disobedient dukes.

• Luominė Monarchija (Estate Monarchy): ($12\text{--}15 \text{ c.}$) Power shared between the monarch and organized social groups (estates: Clergy, Nobility, Townsfolk).

  • Generaliniai Luomai (Estates General): Established in France in $1302$ by Pilypas IV Gražusis (Philip the Fair). It was summoned for special cases (taxes, war) but did not gain permanent power.
  • Didžioji Laisvių Chartija (Magna Carta): Issued in $1215$ by Jonas Bežemis (John Lackland) in England. It established a Parlamentas, a regular institution of nobles to approve the King's decisions (taxes, war).

The Evolution of the Lithuanian State

• Mindaugas: ($c. 1200\text{--}1263$) The first and only King of Lithuania.

  • Krikštas (Baptism) (1251): A diplomatic move to gain international recognition and peace with the Livonian Order.
  • Crowning (1253): Crowned on July 6th with his wife Morta. Lithuania became a recognized Catholic Kingdom until his murder in $1263$.

• Gediminaičių LDK (14th Century): Under the Gediminid dynasty, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (LDK) expanded into Ruthenian lands.

  • Gediminas ($c. 1275\text{--}1341$): Used diplomacy (letters to the Pope, marriages of his children) to maintain Lithuania as a pagan power between East and West. Established Vilnius as the capital.
  • Algirdas (r. 1345--1377): Expanded eastwards while his brother Kęstutis defended the west against the Teutonic Knights.
  • Krėvos Sutartis (Union of Krewa) (1385): Agreement where Jogaila promised to marry Jadwiga of Poland, christianize Lithuania, and unite the two states in a personal union in exchange for the Polish crown.
  • Krikštas (1387): Official christianization of Lithuania. Jogaila issued privileges to the clergy, nobles, and the city of Vilnius, initiating the formation of social estates.

• Vytautas Didysis (Vytautas the Great): Ruler of LDK ($1392\text{--}1430$):

  • Astravos Sutartis (1392): Ended the civil war with Jogaila; Vytautas became the Grand Duke of Lithuania.
  • Horodlės Susitarimai (Union of Horodlo) (1413): Renewed the union with Poland, adopted Polish noble coats of arms for $47$ Lithuanian families, and established the Vilnius and Trakai voyvodeships.
  • Institutions: Formed the Didžiojo Kunigaikščio Taryba (Grand Duke's Council), which evolved into the Ponų Taryba (Council of Lords).

• The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (ATR): Formed by the Liublino Unija (Union of Lublin) (1569).

  • Structure: A federal state with a shared monarch (elected), a shared Seimas (Parliament), and a shared foreign policy, but separate treasuries, armies, and legal systems (the Lietuvos Statutas).
  • Elekcinė Monarchija: Kings were elected by the nobility, signing the Pacta Conventa (commitments to protect noble rights).
  • Liberum Veto: The right of any single noble to block legislation in the Seimas, eventually leading to political paralysis.
  • Gegužės Trečiosios Konstitucija (Constitution of May 3rd, 1791): The first written constitution in Europe. It transformed ATR into a constitutional monarchy and abolished the liberum veto.
  • Partitions: ATR was partitioned by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in $1772$, $1793$, and $1795$, ending Lithuanian statehood for over a century.

Modern Political Ideologies: From Absolutism to Democracy

• Absoliutizmas (Absolutism) ($17\text{--}18 \text{ c.}$): Form of monarchy where the king holds nearly unlimited power. Represented by Liudvikas XIV (Louis XIV) of France. It relied on a centralized bureaucracy and a regular army.

• Konstitucinė Monarchija (Constitutional Monarchy): Established in England following the Teisių Bilis (Bill of Rights) (1689) after the invitation of Vilhelmas Oranietis (William of Orange). The monarch's power is limited by the constitution and Parliament.

• Prancūzijos Revoliucija (French Revolution) ($1789\text{--}1799$):

  • Causes: Absolutism, social inequality (estates), financial crisis, and Enlightenment ideas.
  • Stages: Constitutional monarchy ($1789$), Republic ($1792$), Jacobin Dictatorship under Maksimiljenas Robespjeras ($1793\text{--}1794$), and the Directory ($1794\text{--}1799$).
  • Napoleonas Bonapartas: Took power in $1799$ and declared himself Emperor in $1804$.

• Nacionalizmas (Nationalism) ($19 \text{ c.}$): Ideology that a group sharing identity/culture should form a nation-state.

  • Tautų Pavasaris (Spring of Nations) ($1848\text{--}1849$): Revolutionary wave across Europe seeking civil rights and national self-determination.
  • Unifications: Italy was unified in $1870$ under Džiuzepė Garibaldis; Germany was unified in $1871$ under Otas fon Bismarkas following the Franco-Prussian War.

20th Century Governance

• Interwar Democracy: New nations (like Lithuania) formed based on self-determination. They often faced instability due to many small parties, lack of democratic tradition, and the Didžioji Depresija (Great Depression, $1929\text{--}1939$).

• Naujasis Kursas (New Deal): Franklinas Delanas Ruzveltas's policy to save the US economy through public works and bank reforms.

• Autoritarizmas (Authoritarianism): Power seized by force or by changing the constitution (e.g., Antanas Smetona in Lithuania, $1926$; Juzefas Pilsudskis in Poland, $1926$; Benito Musolinis in Italy, $1922$).

• Totalitarizmas (Totalitarianism): Radical authoritarianism seeking total control over private/public life.

  • Komunizmas: Established in Russia ($1917$) under Vladimiras Leninas and then Josifas Stalinas. Based on utopian classless society, state ownership, and mass terror (Gulags, Holodomor).
  • Nacionalsocializmas (Nacizmas): Established in Germany ($1933$) under Adolfas Hitleris. Based on racial theory (Aryan superiority) and antisemitism (Holocaust).
  • Maoizmas: Established in China ($1949$) under Mao Dzedongas; famous for the Cultural Revolution.

Scientific Revolutions and Modern Discoveries

• Key Scientists:

  • Mikalojus Kopernikas: Proposed Heliocentrizmas (the Sun-centered model) in $1543$.
  • Galileo Galilėjus: Confirmed Copernicus using a telescope and introduced the Eksperimentas (experiment) as a pillar of science.
  • Frensis Beikonas: Developed the Indukcija (induction) method and argued for knowledge through nuonce stebėjimas (systematic observation).
  • Izaokas Niutonas: Formulated the law of universal gravitation ($1687$).
  • Marija Sklodovska-Kiuri: Discovered Polonium and Radium; researched radioactivity.
  • Tomas Alva Edisonas: Perfected the lightbulb ($1879$) and phonograph.
  • Albertas Einšteinas: Formulated the Special Theory of Relativity ($1905$).

• Vakcinacija (Vaccination): Edvardas Dženeris (Edward Jenner) used cowpox to create a vaccine against smallpox in $1796$. Lui Pastero (Louis Pasteur) later developed vaccines against rabies/plague.

Cultural Movements and History of Arts

• Antika: Architecture used the Orderinė sistema (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian columns). Greek theatre (tragedy/comedy) originated from Dioniso (Dionysus) festivals.
• Renesansas ($14\text{--}16 \text{ c.}$): Rebirth of classical ideals, individualism, and humanism. Key figures: Dantė Aligjeris, Leonardas da Vinčis, Erazmas Roterdamietis.
• Gutenbergo Revoliucija (1445): Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with movable metal types, revolutionizing literacy and the spread of ideas.
• Barokas ($16\text{ c. end--18 c. middle}$): Dramatic, ornate, and theatrical. In Lithuania, known for the Vilniaus baroko mokykla (Vilnius Baroque school) pioneered by Jonas Kristupas Glaubicas.
• Modernizmas ($19 \text{ c. end--20 c. middle}$): Rejection of tradition.
  • Impresionizmas: Capturing an impression/moment (e.g., Eduardas Manė).
  • Kauno modernizmo architektūra: Flourished in the interwar capital. Featured minimalist forms and "national style" ornamentation. Recognized as UNESCO heritage in $2023$.

Environmental History and Human Impact

• Akmens Anglis (Coal): Powered the Industrial Revolution in the $19 \text{ c.}$ but caused massive urban pollution.
• Nafta (Oil): Initially for illumination (kerosene), then for internal combustion engines. Rokfeleris (Rockefeller) became the world's first billionaire in this industry.
• Conservation Movements: Started in the $19 \text{ c.}$ with figures like Henris Deividas Toro (Walden). The first national park, Jeloustounas (Yellowstone), was created in $1872$.
• Kolumbinis apsikeitimas (Columbian Exchange): The global swap of biological species after $1492$. Europe received potatoes and corn; America received horses, cattle, and devastating diseases (smallpox/measles) which killed up to $50\%$ of the indigenous population.
• Juodoji Mirtis (Black Death) ($1346\text{--}1353$): Bubonic plague spread by Yersinia pestis. Killed about $20 \text{ million}$ Europeans (approx. $30\text{--}60\%$ of the population).
• Nuclear Disasters: The Černobylio (Chernobyl) explosion in $1986 \text{ AD}$ was the worst ecological catastrophe, spreading radiation across the Northern Hemisphere.
• Climate Change (Globali klimato kaita): Addressed by international treaties like the Kioto protokolas ($1997$) and Paryžiaus protokolas ($2015$). Goal is to limit global temperature rise to below $2^{\circ}C$.

Restoration of Lithuanian Independence

• Vasario 16-osios Aktas (Act of February 16, 1918):

  • Signed by the Lietuvos Taryba (council) under the chairmanship of Jonas Basanavičius.
  • Declared a democratic state independent from Russia and Germany.
  • Led by Antanas Smetona (interwar President).

• Kovo 11-osios Aktas (Act of March 11, 1990):

  • Signed by the Atkuriamasis Seimas (Supreme Council).
  • Led by Vytautas Landsbergis.
  • Based on the principle of state continuity (the occupation of $1940$ was illegal).
  • Faced a Soviet economic blockade ($1990$) and military aggression in January $1991$ (Sausio $13$ event, $14$ deaths).

• Euro-Atlantic Integration:

  • Lithuania joined NATO on March 29, $2004$.
  • Lithuania joined the Europos Sąjunga (EU) on May 1, $2004$.
  • Adopted the Euras ($2015$) and joined Schengen ($2007$).

Questions & Discussion

Question: Why did democracy fail in interwar Lithuania? Response: The lack of democratic tradition, frequent government turnover ($13$ governments in $6$ years), and the perceived weakness of Parliament led to the $1926$ military coup. President Smetona subsequently established an authoritarian regime, censoring the press and limiting political parties.

Question: What is "Sintetinė biologija"? Response: Synthetic biology is a field modifying organisms for practical goals (Genetically Modified Crops, medicine). It raises questions of "Mokslinė etika" (scientific ethics) regarding the creation of new life forms.

Question: How did the Black Death affect the feudal system? Response: The massive population loss made labor scarce and more valuable, accelerating the decline of feudalism and granting more power to surviving peasants and laborers.