Comprehensive Study Notes on Social Stratification and Mobility
Social Stratification: Concepts, Sub-processes, and Characteristics
Social stratification is a specific form of social inequality where social groups are ranked hierarchically based on power, prestige, and wealth. For example, the Indian caste system serves as a archetypal model of social stratification.
Key Terms Defined:
Social group: A collective of individuals possessing a common identity, similar interests, and shared lifestyles, who enjoy comparable rewards.
Power: The degree to which individuals or groups are capable of imposing their wills upon others.
Prestige: The amount of esteem or honor linked to social positions, individual qualities, and specific styles of life.
Wealth: Material possessions categorized as valuable within a specific society, such as land, money, or livestock.
Distinction Between Stratification and Differentiation:
Social stratification is only one form of social inequality. It is possible for inequalities to exist without structured social strata.
Social differentiation: Occurs when social inequalities exist without the creation of a hierarchy.
Social stratification: Occurs when social inequalities result in a formal hierarchy.
Continuous hierarchies: Some sociologists argue that modern industrial societies, like the USA, are not stratified by a class system but rather by continuous hierarchies of occupational statuses and economic rewards.
Sub-processes of Stratification:
Differentiation: Social and natural differences that exist in every society.
Evaluation: Differences are assessed based on prestige and desirability, leading to feelings of superiority or inferiority.
Ranking: Inequalities and differences are compared; ranking is applied to individuals sharing common characteristics evaluated for desirability.
Rewarding: Societies develop systems of rewards and punishments (differential opportunities) for different strata, which reinforces the stratification system.
Characteristics of Stratification Systems:
Sub-culture Development: Each stratum develops unique norms, attitudes, and values. For instance, those in the lowest stratum may develop a fatalistic attitude, relying on luck rather than individual effort.
Consciousness of Kind: Members of the same group share a sense of kinship and group identity, seen in trade unions or farmer groups.
Mobility Types: Systems can be either closed or open based on social mobility.
Life Chances: A person's position affecting their probability of success. Life chances include obtaining desirable things and avoiding undesirable ones. Refugees like the Rohingyas or Kurds often suffer from poor life chances regarding education and survival.
Equality, Inequality, and Theoretical Perspectives
Equality: A cherished value representing the absence of privileges. While people are not identical due to biological, economic, or social differences, equality aims to mitigate injustice.
Three Types of Equality (Peter Saunders):
Formal or Legal Equality: All society members are subject to the same laws and rules.
Equality of Opportunity: Everyone has an equal chance to become unequal; competition is based on merit.
Equality of Outcome: Aims for an egalitarian society, though it may undermine equality of opportunity.
Marxist View on Equality: Inequality stems from differential ownership of the means of production. Moving toward communal ownership leads to a communist utopia and social equality.
Inequality: Persists across all times and locations. Rousseau identified two types:
Natural or Physical Inequality: Differences in age, health, bodily strength, and mental abilities.
Moral or Political Inequality: Differences in privileges established by human consent, such as power or honor.
Theoretical Justifications and Sources of Inequality:
G. D. Berreman: Suggests inequality arises from the social evaluation of natural differentiation.
Plato: Justified inequality via the "Men of Gold, Silver, and Iron" theory, suggesting nature chooses people for specific occupations.
Aristotle: Opposed granting citizenship rights to women and slaves, viewing inequality as natural.
Pareto, Mosca, and Michels: Assign primacy to power. Elite groups occupy top positions in institutions and use power to make others comply.
Inequality in the Indian Context and Global Significance
Significance in Sociology:
The origin of sociology is tied to the concept of equality (e.g., the French Revolution's emphasis on liberty, equality, and fraternity).
Inequality is often institutionalized in forms like caste, race, and gender.
Social movements (e.g., Pinjara Tod, gender pay gap protests) arise to fight for equality.
Functional importance: David Marsland views inequality as desirable because it rewards ability and provides incentives, while conflict perspectives aim to minimize it.
India's Fight Against Inequality:
Louis Dumont: In Homo Hierarchicus, he argues inequality in India is a hereditary way of life perpetuated by the occupational division of labor.
Oxfam International Statistics: Inequality has risen sharply over the last three decades. The top of the population holds of national wealth.
Consequences of Inequality:
Health/Social Problems: Lower life expectancy, higher maternal/infant mortality, and malnutrition are more common in unequal countries.
Social Cohesion: Inequality has an inverse link with trust, goodwill, and mutual sympathy.
Political Instability: Can lead to terrorism, tribal militancy, or civil war (e.g., the American Civil War over slavery).
Market Abuses: Income inequality can lead to labor monopolization and exploitation.
Governmental Initiatives in India:
Employment: Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and National Urban Livelihoods Mission.
Health: Ayushman Bharat (National Health Protection Scheme).
Social Security: Accidental and life insurance, plus institutional support for entrepreneurship via MUDRA Bank.
Secularism: Ensuring freedom of religion as a fundamental right to combat discrimination.
Hierarchy: Definition, Functions, and Distinctions
Definition: The ranking of statuses within a system according to specific criteria of evaluation. It is derived from "hierarcha," meaning rule in holy things.
Historical and Theoretical Perspectives:
C. H. Cooley: Noted the Varna system began as an open class system but became closed through the Divine Origin Theory.
Functionalists: Hierarchy is a symbol of specialization and division of labor, necessary for social system operation.
Louis Dumont: Hierarchy is a feature where normative principles determine utilitarian affairs.
Dipankar Gupta: Open market systems can become hierarchical if services like health and education are left to market forces, limiting mobility for lower classes.
Differences Between Hierarchy and Stratification:
Hierarchy is typically an ascription-based, closed system with social/cultural reproduction; Stratification can be achievement-based and open.
Hierarchy is marked by exclusion/inclusion; Stratification is marked by differences/inequalities.
Hierarchy is characteristic of traditional societies (often legitimized as divine); Stratification is typical of modern industrial societies.
Significance of Hierarchy:
Aids in tracing relative status and position within a rewards system.
Essential for the operation of power and authority (higher positions grant more resource control).
Explains social distance (e.g., the distance between Brahmins and untouchables vs. Brahmins and Kshatriyas).
Social Exclusion: UNDP Definition and Characteristics
Definition: UNDP defines it as the non-recognition of basic civil and social rights. It excludes individuals from services like education, health, transportation, and the judiciary.
Characteristics:
Structural Nature: It is systematic, not accidental (e.g., people living in slums or under bridges).
Behavioral Impacts: Leads to deviance, retreatism, rebellion, or delinquent behavior (as studied by Elliott Currie).
Anomie and Alienation: Long-term exclusion creates a reaction against inclusion. For example, Dalits being denied entry to temples led them to build their own or convert to Buddhism, Christianity, or Islam.
Forms of Exclusion: Labor market (unemployment), services (racial/caste segregation), and social relations.
Homelessness: Anthony Giddens considers this the worst form as it excludes individuals from many other services.
Poverty vs. Social Exclusion (Mary Daly):
Poverty is unidimensional and economic-centric; Exclusion is multi-dimensional and focuses on societal participation.
Poverty involves lack of material resources; Exclusion can affect the economically secure (e.g., isolated elderly people).
Poverty redistribution involves wealth; Exclusion reform involves social service sensitization and inclusion methods.
Significance of Exclusion:
Highlights that recruitment (inclusion) isn't always enough if the environment remains uncooperative (e.g., women in male-dominated firms).
Acknowledges voluntary exclusion (e.g., sadhus, elite clubs).
Acknowledges social necessity (e.g., isolation for leprosy or Tuberculosis patients).
Digital Exclusion: A new form observed during the pandemic.
Poverty and Deprivation: Types and Theories
Types of Poverty:
Absolute Poverty: Based on minimum subsistence requirements (poverty line).
Relative Poverty: Lacking resources for diets or standards customary in a society (Peter Townsend).
Subjective Poverty: How poor an individual or group feels themselves to be.
Theories on Poverty:
Positive Feedback System: Ken Coates and Richard Silburn argue each part of poverty reinforces the others (e.g., poor nutrition during pregnancy affecting foetal development).
Culture of Poverty: Oscar Lewis suggests a transmitted "design for living." Characteristics include marginality, fatalism, and a strong present-time orientation. Family traits include mother-centered structures and high divorce rates.
Situational Constraint Perspective: Poverty is due to external constraints, not values. Removing constraints allows adoption of mainstream behavior.
Marxian Perspective: Poverty is an inevitable consequence of capitalism. Kincaid notes some are rich because others are poor.
Weberian Perspective: Class depends on market situation. Social class, not personal inadequacy, accounts for poverty.
Functionalist Perspective: Herbert J. Gans argues poverty is useful to society by providing for dirty/dangerous jobs and creating status comparison rods.
Deprivation:
Absolute Deprivation: Lack of survival necessities (food, water, shelter).
Relative Deprivation: Feeling deprived when comparing oneself to those who have more. This concept is central to Merton's reference group theory and studies on revolutions.
Pierre Bourdieu: Views deprivation as a lack of social, cultural, symbolic, and economic capital.
Functionalist Theories: Parsons, Davis, and Moore
Talcott Parsons:
Stratification is derived from value consensus. Successful performance of societal values leads to higher ranking and rewards.
Example: Sioux Indians celebrate bravery; thus, warriors hold high rank.
Stratification is inevitable, just, and essential for the coordination of a specialized division of labor.
Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (Some Principle of Social Stratification):
Stratification is a functional prerequisite for society's survival and efficiency.
Functional importance: Higher rewards (prestige/income) are attached to positions that require special skills and are vital for society's maintenance to motivate individuals to undergo training.
Measurement of importance: Uniqueness (can other positions perform the function?) and dependency (how many other positions rely on it?).
Criticisms (Melvin M. Tumin):
Manual scavenging and cleaning are important but poorly rewarded.
Power influences reward distribution, not just functional importance.
No objective method exists to measure talent.
Stratification acts as a barrier to motivation and promotes nepotism.
Alvin Gouldner argues stratification is a justification for inequality, not an inevitability.
Marxist and Weberian Perspectives on Stratification
Marxist Theory:
Stratification is divisive and exploitative, emerging from unequal control over the forces of production.
Identifies the haves and have-nots (proletariat and bourgeoisie).
Predicts class struggle and revolution leading to a classless society.
Criticisms: Weber argued against economic determinism; Dahrendorf noted the decomposition of capital through shareholders and managers.
Weber’s Trinitarian View:
Class: Based on market situation and similar life chances. Identified four classes: propertied upper-class, property-less white-collar workers, petty bourgeoisie, and the manual working class.
Status: Refers to social honor or prestige. Status groups share lifestyles and practice social closure. Status can cut across class, potentially weakening class solidarity.
Party: Groups concerned with acquiring social power and influencing policies (political parties, interest groups).
Criticism: Ulrich Beck argues inequalities in the modern "Risk Society" are based on risk management capability rather than just class/status.
Dimensions: Class, Status Groups, and Lifestyles
Comparison of Marx and Weber on Class:
Marx: Class based only on ownership; two-class model (haves/have-nots); predicts polarization and conflict.
Weber: Class based on ownership and skills; four-class model; sees no evidence of polarization; views white-collar class as expanding.
Scholarly Perspectives on Class:
Anthony Giddens: Upper (property), middle (skills), and lower (manual labor) classes.
Frank Parkin: Uses occupational classification; professional groups use social closure (lengthy training) to create "artificial scarcity."
Ralf Dahrendorf: Class struggle is managed through new industrial and political techniques, making revolution unlikely.
Pierre Bourdieu’s Four Capitals of Status:
Cultural capital: Educational qualifications, language, religion.
Economic capital: Material assets and income.
Social capital: Networks and associations.
Symbolic capital: Reputation and social standing.
Status Dynamics:
Consumption choices and lifestyles often shape identity more than occupation today.
Sanskritization (adopting rituals of upper castes) and Westernization are status-shifting processes in India.
Gender, Ethnicity, and Race
Gender:
Differences: Sex is biological; Gender is a socially constructed psychological/cultural identity.
Functionalism: George Murdock (biological division of labor), Talcott Parsons (expressive vs. instrumental roles), and John Bowlby (maternal deprivation) view gender roles as functional.
Marxist/Feminist: Engels argued private property and capitalism intensified patriarchy. Radical feminists (e.g., S. Firestone) call for abolishing the family to end systematic domination.
Contemporary Bias: Gender pay gaps, "pink collarization" (clustering in low-status roles), and male-centered religious rituals.
Ethnicity:
A sense of collectivity based on common language, history, or national origin. It is elastic (Fredrick Barth notes individuals can shift groups through acculturation).
Approaches: Primordial (genetic/geographical ties) vs. Instrumentalist (manipulation by political elites).
Roles: Integrative (sense of belonging) vs. Disintegrative (separatism, ethnic cleansing like the Nazi holocaust or Nagorno-Karabakh conflict).
Race:
A biological concept regarding physical characteristics (skin color, etc.). Sociologists view it as an ideological construct used for domination.
Theories: White Man’s Burden, Apartheid (South Africa), and Capitalism-driven slavery (Oliver C. Cox).
Racism Today: Overt (visible oppression like slave status) vs. Covert (hidden bias in housing, education, and bans on turbans or hijabs).
Social Mobility: Types and Significance
Definitions and Systems:
Open System: Mobility encouraged based on merit (modern societies).
Closed System: Position assigned by ascription (Ancient India).
Types of Mobility:
Horizontal (Lateral): Movement without changing stratum (e.g., rural laborer to urban industrial worker).
Vertical: Ascending (social climbing) or Descending (social sinking).
Intra-generational: Changes during a single lifetime (e.g., tea stall worker to Prime Minister).
Inter-generational: Comparison between generations (e.g., daughter of a clerk becoming an IAS officer).
Causes (Pitirim Sorokin):
Demographic factors: Vacancies created by lower birth rates in higher strata or migration.
Parent-child ability mismatch: Talent from lower strata must be absorbed.
Environment Changes: Globalization, democratization, and education.
Significance:
Low mobility leads to high class solidarity (Giddens).
Mobility acts as a "political safety-valve," preventing frustration (Frank Parkin).
Can weaken kinship ties or cause social change.
Numerical Data and Historical Context:
Oxfam report: Top of Indians hold of national wealth.
Study of Tanjore village: Andre Beteille found non-Brahmins (Kallars) gained political power, shifting the secular hierarchy.
Murdock's study: Sampled over societies to conclude on biological division of labor.
Census Data: census showed significant improvement in women's educational attainment.