The 1980s: The Rise of Conservatism and the End of the Cold War

Liberalism vs. Conservatism in the 20th Century

• Historically, for the majority of the $20 ext{th}$ century, liberalism was the dominant political ideology in the United States.
• Liberalism was championed by various leaders and eras, including:     - Progressive Presidents.     - The New Deal era.     - John F. Kennedy ($JFK$) and Lyndon B. Johnson ($LBJ$).     - Jimmy Carter.
• The rise of "New Conservatism" began to challenge this dominance, emerging from several key societal divisions:     - Sunbelt vs. Rustbelt.     - Suburban vs. Urban.     - The Religious Right.

The Shift from the Rustbelt to the Sunbelt

• Conservative votes were historically split by region:     - The South generally voted Democrat.     - The West generally voted Republican.
• For a significant period, political parties shifted toward liberalism because whichever party won the Northeast won the election, and the Northeast was traditionally liberal.
• This dynamic changed during World War II due to mass migration to the Sun Belt.
• The Rustbelt:     - Located in the Northeast, the industry in this region was in decline.     - Characteristics included high unemployment, pollution, and congestion.     - Residents of the Rustbelt frequently looked to the federal government to solve their problems.
• The Sunbelt:     - This region experienced a massive influx of people migrating from the Northeast to the South and West.     - Sunbelt residents were generally opposed to high taxes and government regulations, which they viewed as hindrances to economic growth.
• Political Shift in the South:     - White Southerners began to feel alienated by the Democratic Party due to its support for Civil Rights.     - There was a perception that the federal government was overstepping by asserting control and imposing policies on the region.     - The Republican shift officially began in $1964$ with Barry Goldwater, who campaigned on the platform that the federal government was too strong.
• Political Shift in the West:     - Westerners opposed the size and power of the federal government, driven by a "frontier spirit" and rugged individualism.     - They resented federal regulations that limited ranching, controlled water usage, and restricted the development of natural resources.     - The Sagebrush Rebellion occurred in the $1970 ext{s}$, characterized by widespread conservative protests against federal land control.
• By $1980$, the population of the Sunbelt surpassed that of the Rustbelt, leading to a shift in electoral college power (more electoral votes for the Sunbelt).

Suburban vs. Urban Dynamics

• The $1960 ext{s}$ and $1970 ext{s}$ were marked by crime and riots, which triggered a migration to the suburbs, often referred to as urban blight.
• Middle-class Americans faced high inflation and high taxes during the $1970 ext{s}$, which threatened their economic security.
• There was a growing resentment among Americans regarding paying for social programs while they themselves were struggling economically.
• Proposition 13 ($1978$): A landmark event in California where conservative activists called for significant property tax cuts.
• Anti-tax movements began to appear in other states and eventually became a prominent national issue, causing middle-class Americans to flock to conservative causes.

The Rise of the Religious Right

• Many Americans felt that the national society had lost touch with traditional values.
• Concerns for religious Americans were fueled by:     - The $Roe ext{ v. } Wade$ decision.     - Warren Court reforms.     - Shocking events of the $1960 ext{s}$ and $1970 ext{s}$.     - The feminist movement, which some perceived as a threat to the traditional family.     - Student activists, who were seen as having contempt for authority and contributing to a breakdown of values.
• The largest group within this movement was evangelical Protestant Christians.
• A religious revival followed World War II, led by figures such as Billy Graham and Oral Roberts.
• Televangelists:     - Prominent figures included Marion "Pat" Robertson and Jerry Falwell.     - Jerry Falwell founded the "Moral Majority," an organization that utilized television and mail campaigns to register new conservative voters.
• By the late $1970 ext{s}$, a new conservative coalition had formed; although various groups had different specific issues, they were united by the belief that America had "lost its way."

The Election of 1980

• Ronald Reagan defeated Jimmy Carter, signifying the prevalence of conservatism in national politics.
• Electoral Vote Results:     - Total electoral votes: $538$.     - Ronald Reagan: $489$ votes ($90.9\%$).     - Jimmy Carter: $49$ votes ($9.1\%$).
• Popular Vote Results:     - Total popular votes: $86,515,221$.     - Ronald Reagan (Republican): $43,904,153$ ($50.7\%$).     - Jimmy Carter (Democrat): $35,483,883$ ($41\%$).     - John Anderson: $5,720,060$ ($6.7\%$).     - Minor candidates: $1,407,125$ ($1.6\%$).
• Along with the presidency, Republicans gained control of the Senate for the first time since $1954$.

Ronald Reagan and Reaganomics

• Reagan addressed a nation frustrated with the economy and its perceived international weakness.
• His central philosophy was: "Government isn't the solution—it's the problem."
• He promised to cut taxes and increase defense spending to restore American self-belief.
• Reaganomics (Supply-Side Economics):     - A combination of Monetarism and supply-side economics.     - Monetarism: Theory that inflation is caused by too much money in circulation. The solution is to raise interest rates.     - Supply-side: Theory that taxes were too high, taking money away from investors. The solution is to lower taxes so businesses can expand.     - Often referred to as "Trickle-down economics."     - Congress passed a $25\%$ tax cut through this initiative.
• Budget Cuts:     - To decrease deficit spending, Reagan cut programs including welfare, food stamps, school lunch programs, Medicare, student loans, housing subsidies, and unemployment.     - Despite these cuts, Congress did not balance the budget, as tax cuts and military spending were prioritized over balancing the budget.

Deregulation and Environmental Policy

• Reagan implemented an executive order to eliminate price controls on oil and gas, which resulted in a decrease in gas prices.
• Other areas of deregulation included:     - The National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration.     - Airlines: New competition led to price wars and the creation of new airlines.     - FCC: Elimination of regulations on cable television.     - Department of the Interior: James Watt opened public land for mining, drilling, and logging.     - EPA: Relaxed regulations on pollution, chemicals, and pesticides.

Economic and Judicial Effects of the Reagan Era

• Economic Recovery:     - The economy began to recover by $1983$, leading to a boom by $1984$.     - Median incomes rose by $15\%$ by $1989$.     - Approximately $5$ million new businesses and $20$ million new jobs were created.     - By $1988$, the unemployment rate dropped to $5.5\%$.
• The Court System:     - Reagan sought a strict constructionist view for the judiciary.     - He nominated Sandra Day O’Connor as the first female Supreme Court Justice.     - When Warren Burger retired in $1986$, William Rehnquist was appointed.     - Antonin Scalia was appointed to replace Rehnquist as an associate justice.     - In $1987$, Reagan appointed Robert Bork, but Congress blocked his confirmation for being too conservative.     - Anthony Kennedy (a moderate) eventually became the new justice.

The Election of 1984

• Candidates: Ronald Reagan & George H.W. Bush (Republicans) vs. Walter Mondale & Geraldine Ferraro (Democrats).
• Electoral Vote Results:     - Total: $538$.     - Reagan: $525$ ($97.6\%$).     - Mondale: $13$ ($2.4\%$).
• Popular Vote Results:     - Total: $92,652,842$.     - Reagan: $54,455,075$ ($58.8\%$).     - Mondale: $37,577,185$ ($40.5\%$).     - Minor candidates: $620,582$ ($.7\%$).

Reagan’s Foreign Policy

• Reagan characterized the Soviet Union as "the focus of evil in the modern world" and an "evil empire."
• "Peace through strength":     - Initiated a military buildup costing $1.5$ trillion dollars, the largest peacetime spending in U.S. history.     - Although tax revenue increased, the budget deficit rose from $80$ billion dollars to over $200$ billion dollars.     - The strategy aimed to force reform through economic pressure or cause the collapse of the Soviet economy.
• The Reagan Doctrine: Aid was provided to guerrilla groups fighting communist governments in:     - Afghanistan: Where Soviets had invaded in $1979$.     - Nicaragua.     - Grenada.

The Iran-Contra Scandal

• After Sandinistas overthrew a pro-American dictator, Reagan secretly aided the counter-revolutionaries (the Contras).
• Despite Congress banning aid to the Contras, individuals in the Reagan administration continued the support.
• They sold weapons to Iran for money, then funneled that money to the Contras.
• Oliver North and other senior National Security Council ($NSC$) and Central Intelligence Agency ($CIA$) officials covered up these actions.
• A Senate investigation concluded that while Reagan approved the arm sales, he was unaware of the money being sent to the Contras.

Diplomacy and the End of the Cold War

• Reagan placed nuclear weapons in Western Europe.
• Strategic Arms Reduction Talks ($START$): Aimed to cut nuclear arsenals by half ($1/2$), though the Soviets initially walked out.
• Star Wars: Officially known as the Strategic Defense Initiative ($SDI$).
• Mikhail Gorbachev (Leader as of $1985$):     - Believed the Soviet system required reform to avoid total economic collapse.     - Perestroika: Economic restructuring allowing for private enterprise and profit motives.     - Glasnost: "Openness," allowing for freedom of speech, religion, and open political discussion.
• Reagan-Gorbachev Summits:     - Gorbachev pushed for an end to the "Star Wars" program.     - Reagan challenged the Soviets to implement reforms.     - On June 12, $1987$, Reagan delivered his "Tear down this wall" speech at the Berlin Wall.
• The Collapse of Communism:     - $1989$: Peaceful revolutions occurred in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria.     - November 9, $1989$: East German guards opened the Berlin Wall gates; the wall was gone within days.     - East and West Germany reunited less than a year later.     - August $1991$: A failed military coup led to the arrest of Gorbachev. Russian President Boris Yeltsin defied the coup from the Russian parliament.     - All $15$ Soviet republics declared independence.     - December $1991$: Gorbachev officially announced the end of the Soviet Union.

The Presidency of George H.W. Bush

• The Election of 1988:     - Candidates: George H.W. Bush (Republican) vs. Michael Dukakis (Democrat).     - Jesse Jackson finished second in the Democratic primary, becoming the first African American to make a serious run for the presidency.     - Bush famously promised: "Read my lips: no new taxes."     - Dukakis was portrayed by opponents as too liberal and "soft on crime."
• 1988 Election Results:     - Bush: $426$ electoral votes ($79.2\%$); $53.4\%$ popular vote ($41,807,430$).     - Dukakis: $111$ electoral votes ($20.6\%$); $45.6\%$ popular vote ($35,483,883$).
• Bush's Foreign Policy and Global Events:     - New World Order: Term used for the post-Cold War era.     - Tiananmen Square: In China, pro-democracy student protests were met with military force, leading to many arrests and deaths.     - Panama: Dictator Manuel Noriega aided drug traffickers and harassed U.S. military at the canal. In December $1989$, the U.S. invaded Panama, seized Noriega, and brought him to trial on drug charges.

Operation Desert Storm

• In August $1990$, Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait.
• A UN coalition imposed sanctions and ordered withdrawal (Operation Desert Shield).
• In January $1991$, Operation Desert Storm was launched.
• Characteristics of the War:     - Six weeks of massive bombardment of Baghdad and Iraq using "smart bombs."     - Ground attack resulted in only $300$ coalition casualties.     - Led by Norman Schwarzkopf and Colin Powell.
• Despite this success, troubles began to emerge with Muslim extremists, specifically Al Qaeda.

Bush Domestic Policy

• The end of the Cold War led to decreased defense spending, causing layoffs and unemployment due to downsizing.
• The Federal Deficit:     - Government borrowing led to less money for business expansion and high interest payments, reducing funds for programs.
• Bush proposed a capital gains tax cut, but it was defeated by Congress.
• Bush eventually broke his "no new taxes" promise, for which Americans largely blamed him.
• In $1990$, the Americans with Disabilities Act ($ADA$) was signed into law.