The Progressive Era and American Imperialism
The Progressive Era - The Rise of Theodore Roosevelt
Admiral George Dewey
Important figure in American history during the Progressive Era.
Known as the hero of Manila.
Manifest Destiny
John L. O'Sullivan (1845) articulated the idea of Manifest Destiny, claiming:
“[It is] our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.”
America's Progress
Illustration by George Crogutt (1873) depicting America's expansion and progress.
Imperialism
Definition: Stronger nations try to create empires by dominating weaker nations.
Historical Context: By the late 1800s, European nations dominated most of Africa and Asia.
Causes for the Growth of Imperialism
Industrial Growth
Natural resources were needed to fuel the Industrial Revolution.
Nationalism
Nations believe their identities (beliefs, ideals, goals) are superior to others.
Military Expansion
Development of new navies required refueling stations (coal); large armies and navies surpassed those of developing nations.
Humanitarianism
Spreading Western civilization (government, Christianity, law, medicine) was seen as beneficial for everyone.
American Imperialism
Frontier Ends: Frederick Jackson Turner's thesis on the closing of the American frontier as a driver for expansion.
Manifest Destiny in the Americas: The belief extended from North and South America.
Key Dates and Actions:
1867: Acquisition of Midway Islands.
1867: Purchase of Alaska, referred to as “Seward’s Folly.”
1875: Hawaii Sugar Treaty allowed Hawaii to sell duty-free sugar to the USA, conditioned on not selling/leasing territory to foreign nations.
Anglo-Saxon Mission: The notion that it was the destiny of Anglo-Saxons to dominate global territories.
Social Darwinism: The application of the theory of evolution (Survival of the Fittest) to societal dynamics.
Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan: His seminal work, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, posited that:
Great powers require foreign markets and a strong navy to protect these markets.
Open-Door Policy in China:
Commodore Perry’s black dragons symbolize steam ships, specifically referencing his role in opening trade with Japan on July 8, 1853, via Millard Fillmore's “Treaty of Friendship.”
Hawaii
King Kamehameha III: Aims for Hawaii to be westernized and perceived as a modern power.
Queen Liliuokalani: Advocated for “Hawaii for Hawaiians” and ruled as an absolute monarch in 1893.
John Stevens: USA Minister to Hawaii, instrumental in its political transition.
Proclamation of July 4, 1894: The Hawaiian Republic was announced, with Sanford Dole as its president.
Cuban Problems
Jose Marti: A Cuban poet and patriot fighting for Cuba’s independence.
Valeriano “Butcher” Weyler: Known for his reconcentrados, which led to the confinement of 300,000 Cubans under poor conditions resulting in disease.
Juntas: Organizational forms of rebellion and political advocacy within Cuba.
Escalation of Cuban Problems
“Remember the Maine” Campaign: Triggered American intervention; February 1898 incident led to the rallying cry to oppose Spain.
William Randolph Hearst: Pioneered yellow journalism with the phrase, “You provide the pictures, I’ll provide the war.”
Frederick Remington: An artist who raised awareness through imagery.
April 11, 1898: War was formally declared by the USA.
Teller Amendment: Ensured Cuba must be independent post-war.
Spanish American War
Battle of Manila Bay: April 30, 1898, led by Commodore Dewey.
Continuing War Efforts: Includes combat efforts in Cuba with units like the Rough Riders, led by Theodore Roosevelt, especially noted at the Battle of San Juan Hill in July 1898.
Treaty of Paris (July 1898)
Resulted in major concessions:
Spain must relinquish control of Cuba.
Puerto Rico ceded to the USA.
USA gains islands between Hawaii and Philippines.
Manila is to be held indefinitely by the USA.
Platt Amendment: Granted the USA rights to intervene in Cuba for its independence, maintaining government order and protecting life and property.
Opposition to the Treaty
Anti-Imperialist League of 1899: Mark Twain expressed opposition, stating that the USA intended to conquer rather than free the Philippines. He articulated:
“I am opposed to having the eagle put its talons on any other land.”
Shift in America's Role in World Affairs Post-War
USA evolved to align more closely with European imperialist powers.
Psychological impacts including a sense of fatalism through works like Frank Norris’s The Octopus, portraying corporate influence.
Emerging beliefs in America's destiny and duty to expand alongside optimism regarding progress.
Imperialism Maps
Annexations & Territories:
Notable acquisitions include Puerto Rico (1898), Hawaii (1898), Alaska (1867), Midway Islands (1867), American Samoa (1878), Philippines (1898), and Guam (1899).
Protectorates & Interventions: Included Nicaragua (1911), Cuba (1898), Haiti-D.R. (1915/1916), Panama (1903).
Trading Partners: Engaged others like Korea (1880), Japan (1854), and China (1844).
Theodore Roosevelt
Multifaceted figure: Historian, naturalist, hunter, cowboy, soldier, NYC police commissioner, assistant navy secretary, and Governor of New York.
Political Developments
Election of 1900: William McKinley re-elected with T. Roosevelt as Vice President.
Assassination of McKinley: By Leon Czolgosz, leading Roosevelt to ascend to the presidency.
T.R.’s Political Theory
A Rough Rider President characterized by:
Order and Efficiency: Promoting competitive business and a robust national government.
“Bully Pulpit”: Used the presidency to advocate for reforms.
Faith in Power: Noted for advocating wisdom strength in international diplomacy, epitomized in the phrase:
“Walk softly and carry a big stick, and you will go far.”
Often referred to as “Gunboat Diplomacy” or “Big Stick Diplomacy.”
T.R. in Foreign Affairs
Recognized dominant powers included:
USA, Great Britain, Germany, and Japan, interacting with smaller nations and developing areas in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
Great White Fleet (1907)
Show of naval power aimed at demonstrating America’s strength to Asia.
Russo-Japanese War (1904)
Tensions between Russia and Japan arose due to competition over territorial expansion. USA involvement:
Financed Japan, helping them succeed, ultimately leading to a peace settlement at Portsmouth, NH (1905), through which T.R. received a Nobel Peace Prize.
Resulted in distrust between Japan, Russia, and the USA.
Building the Panama Canal
Discussions about Nicaragua versus Columbia (Panama);
Initially attempted by France to construct a canal in 1881 but faced financial and health issues, such as rampant yellow fever.
Colombian Senate demanded excess fees, complicating negotiations.
Key developments from 1903 to 1913 with the eventual USA sponsoring a Panamanian revolution.
Gunboat Diplomacy
T.R. embraced this approach for several reasons:
Preparedness was essential as only the USA could manage global conditions due to a large population and strong industry.
Righteousness played a role in policy, with T.R. viewing maintaining order in lesser nations as a duty.
Actions taken included:
Interventions in Venezuela (1902), Panama (1903), Santo Domingo (1904-1907), and involvement in mediating Russo-Japanese tensions.
Platt Amendment/Troops (1906)
Troops were re-stationed in Cuba, demonstrating ongoing American influence in the region.
What is Progressivism?
Defined as a movement aimed to leverage government action to improve the lives of ordinary citizens, focusing on:
Fighting monopolies and corruptive practices.
Addressing social injustices and inefficiencies.
Characteristics of Progressivism
Expansion of public education with increased high school enrollment.
Muckrakers
Notable journalists who exposed corruption and social issues:
Henry Demarest Lloyd: Wealth Against Commonwealth tackled Standard Oil.
Thorstein Veblen: The Theory of the Leisure Class critiqued the nouveau riche.
Jacob Riis: How the Other Half Lives illustrated slum conditions.
Lincoln Steffens: Documented corrupt business-government relations for McClure's Magazine.
David Phillips: Accused many Senators of serving railroad interests.
Ray Stannard Baker: Explored racial literacy disparities.
John Spargo: Wrote on child labor in The Bitter Cry of the Children.
Frank Norris: The Octopus warned of the railroad trust's influence.
Jack London: Advocated for concerns about rising social revolution in The War of the Class.
Upton Sinclair: The Jungle exposed conditions in the meatpacking industry, leading to the Pure Food and Drug Act.
Political Progressivism
Initiative: Enabled voters to propose legislation.
Referendum: Allowed voters to approve laws directly.
Recall: Permitted citizens to remove officials underperforming.
Secret Ballot: Protected voter privacy.
Direct Election of Senators: Achieved through the 17th Amendment in 1913.
Women’s Suffrage Campaign: Continued through leaders like Carrie Lane Chapman Catt, with progress in over two-thirds of states allowing women to vote in certain elections by 1915.
The Wisconsin Idea
Introduced by Robert La Follette, which advocated reforms such as:
Direct primaries for a fair electoral process.
Limits on campaign spending.
Restrictions on lobbyists influenced by special interests.
Progressivism in the Cities
New governance structures:
City Managers to handle political administration.
Municipal socialism aimed at public ownership of utilities.
Goals included:
Addressing issues of prostitution and juvenile delinquency.
Enacting child labor laws and minimum wage regulations.
Leaders like Hiram Johnson and Charles Evans Hughes spearheaded reforms in California and New York, respectively.
Battling Societal Problems
Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (1911):
Incident resulting in the deaths of 146 women, sparking labor reform.
Prohibition Movement: Led by organizations such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union and Anti-Saloon League, culminating in the 18th Amendment (1919).
The Square Deal
Aimed at ensuring fairness in economic transactions through:
Control of Corporations.
Consumer Protection.
Conservation of Natural Resources.
Trust-Buster Roosevelt
Differentiated between good and bad trusts.
Notable actions included:
Targeting the Northern Securities Corporation for violating the Sherman Anti-Trust Laws.
Implementing the Hepburn Act to regulate railroad rates and conduct inspections for unfair profits.
Roosevelt’s “Imperial Presidency”
Critiqued Congress's efficiency, advocating for centralized power.
Anthracite Coal Strike (1902): Addressed labor demands by compelling arbitration for a fair resolution.
Emphasized conservation through executive orders and regulatory oversight.
Election of 1908
T.R. won reelection in 1904, pledging this would be his last term.
Candidates included William H. Taft for the Republicans and William Jennings Bryan for the Democrats.
Taft’s Administration
Transition from T.R.’s “Big Stick Diplomacy” to “Dollar Diplomacy.”
Viewed as indecisive, Taft’s actions included breaking up trusts, including US Steel.
By 1910, doubts grew within the Republican Party regarding Taft's re-election prospects.
Bull Moose Progressivism
T.R. contested Taft’s nomination, ultimately founding the Bull Moose Party.
New Nationalism emphasized:
Minimum wage for women and children.
Workers' insurance policies.
Federally controlled corporations.
Immediate cessation of child labor.
Dr. Wilson’s Democrats
T. Woodrow Wilson, former New Jersey governor and Princeton University head, led the New Freedom agenda:
Promoted monopoly breakup.
Opposed privileges based on gender, age, or race.
Election of 1912
Democratic victory reflected in the Electoral College:
Wilson (Democrat) secured 435 votes.
T. Roosevelt (Bull Moose) received 88 votes.
Taft (Republican) only gained 8 votes.
Eugene V. Debs (Socialist) earned no electoral votes yet captured 6% of the popular vote, highlighting a shift in political engagement.