Advanced Biology Study Notes

Advanced Biology Vocabulary

  • Cells

    • Basic units of life; all living organisms are made of cells.

  • Prokaryote

    • A simple, single-celled organism without a nucleus (e.g., bacteria).

  • Eukaryote

    • A cell that has a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (e.g., animal, plant cells).

  • Organelle

    • Structures within a cell that perform specific functions (e.g., mitochondria).

  • Cell Membrane

    • Outer boundary of the cell, controls what enters and exits.

  • Central Vacuole

    • Large storage compartment in plant cells for water and nutrients.

  • Cytoplasm

    • Gel-like substance that fills the cell and holds organelles.

  • Phospholipid Bilayer

    • The double-layer structure of cell membranes.

  • Diffusion

    • Movement of particles from high to low concentration.

  • Concentration Gradient

    • Difference in the concentration of substances across a space.

  • Facilitated Diffusion

    • Movement of substances across membranes via proteins.

  • Active Transport

    • Movement of molecules using energy (ATP) against a concentration gradient.

  • Isotonic

    • Solution with equal solute concentration inside and outside the cell.

  • Hypertonic

    • Solution with higher solute concentration than inside the cell (cell shrinks).

  • Hypotonic

    • Solution with lower solute concentration than inside the cell (cell swells).

  • Solute

    • Substance dissolved in a solution (e.g., salt).

  • Solvent

    • The substance that dissolves a solute (e.g., water).

Cell Division and Cycle

  • Interphase

    • The cell grows, replicates DNA, and prepares for division.

  • S phase (DNA Synthesis)

    • Part of interphase where DNA is replicated.

  • Mitosis

    • Process of cell division resulting in two identical cells.

  • Metaphase

    • Stage where chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.

  • Telophase

    • Chromosomes uncoil, nuclear membrane reforms.

  • Chromatin

    • Loose, uncondensed DNA in the nucleus.

  • Chromatid

    • One half of a duplicated chromosome.

Cell Structures and Functions

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

    • Helps in protein and lipid production; Rough ER has ribosomes; smooth ER does not.

  • Nucleus

    • Control center of the cell, contains DNA.

  • Protein

    • Molecule made of amino acids, essential for structure and function in cells.

  • Lipid

    • Fat molecules used for energy storage and cell membranes.

  • Polymer

    • A large molecule made of many monomers.

  • Monosaccharide

    • Simple sugar (e.g., glucose).

  • Nucleotide

    • Building block of DNA and RNA (sugar, phosphate, base).

  • Enzymes

    • Proteins that speed up chemical reactions.

  • Vacuole

    • Storage sac in cells for water, nutrients, or waste.

  • Lysosome

    • Organelle containing enzymes to break down waste.

  • Plasma Membrane

    • Another term for the cell membrane.

  • Osmosis

    • Diffusion of water through a membrane.

Genetics and Protein Synthesis

  • DNA

    • Deoxyribonucleic acid – stores genetic info.

  • RNA

    • Ribonucleic acid – helps make proteins.

  • Transcription

    • DNA to mRNA process.

  • Translation

    • mRNA to protein process.

  • Codon

    • A 3-base sequence in mRNA that codes for an amino acid.

  • Anticodon

    • A 3-base sequence in tRNA that pairs with an mRNA codon.

  • Mutation

    • A change in the DNA sequence.

  • Point Mutation

    • A mutation where one base is changed.

  • Frameshift Mutation

    • Caused by insertion or deletion, shifting the reading frame.

  • Insertion

    • A mutation where a base is added to the DNA.

  • Deletion

    • A mutation where a base is removed from the DNA.

  • Substitution

    • A mutation where one base is replaced with another.

Evolution and Natural Selection

  • Evolution

    • The process by which species change over time from a shared ancestor.

  • Natural Selection

    • Process where organisms with beneficial traits reproduce more successfully.

  • Adaptation

    • A trait that improves an organism’s chances of survival.

  • Common Ancestor

    • A shared ancestor from which different species evolved.

  • Fossil Record

    • Collection of fossils that shows changes in organisms over time.

  • Homology

    • Similar traits due to shared ancestry.

  • Vestigial Structures

    • Body parts that no longer serve a purpose (e.g., human appendix).

  • Speciation

    • Formation of a new species.

  • Genetic Variation

    • Differences in DNA among individuals in a population.

Energy Flow, Body Systems & Homeostasis

  • Photosynthesis

    • Process where plants convert solar energy into chemical energy (glucose).

  • Cellular Respiration

    • Process that breaks down glucose to release usable energy (ATP).

  • Homeostasis

    • The body’s ability to maintain stable internal conditions.

  • Feedback Loops

    • Mechanisms that help maintain homeostasis; positive feedback amplifies a response, while negative feedback reduces changes.

  • Thermoregulation

    • Maintaining a stable body temperature.

  • Blood Glucose Regulation

    • Controlling blood sugar levels using insulin/glucagon.

  • Nervous System

    • Controls body activities using electrical signals.

  • Immune System

    • Defends the body against disease.