Reformation in Great Britain

John Knox stated, "The universal defection whereof Saint Paul did prophesy is easy to be a spy as well in religion as in manners. The corruption of life is evident, and religion is not measured with the plain word of god, but by custom, constitute, will, consent, and determination of men". Early in the 17th century, Great Britain was divided between the House of Tudor in England and the Stuart Kingdom of Scotland. These houses were related, but during the 16th century, their relationship was marked by conflict. Therefore, the Reformation took different paths in each kingdom.

Henry VIII

At the start of the 16th century, Scotland was allied with France, and England with Spain. To strengthen ties with Spain, Henry VII of England arranged for his son Arthur to marry Catherine of Aragon. However, Arthur died four months later. To maintain the alliance and retain Catherine's dowry, Spain proposed a marriage between Catherine and Arthur's younger brother, Henry (later Henry VIII).

Canon law prohibited marriage to a brother's widow, but a papal dispensation was obtained. The marriage occurred but was not happy. The lack of a male heir, with only Princess Mary Tudor surviving, was seen as a sign of divine displeasure. To secure the succession, several solutions were considered. Henry even suggested legitimizing his bastard son, the Duke of Richmond, as his heir, but this required papal approval, which was denied to avoid alienating Spain.

Henry sought an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, arguing that the papal dispensation was invalid, thus freeing him to marry and produce a male heir. Initially, this was driven by state reasons. However, Pope Clement VII was under the influence of Charles V, Catherine's nephew, and could not grant the annulment without offending him. The Pope prolonged the process, even suggesting Henry secretly take a second wife, which was unviable as the heir needed to be publicly acknowledged.

Thomas Cranmer, an advisor to Henry, suggested consulting Catholic universities. Universities including Paris, Orleans, Toulouse, Oxford, Cambridge and those in Italy deemed Henry's marriage as invalid. Consequently, Henry VIII initiated policies that would eventually lead to a break with Rome. He reenacted laws against appeals to Rome and exerted greater control over the clergy. He also threatened to withhold funds normally sent to Rome, compelling the Pope to appoint Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury.

Despite his conflicts with the papacy, Henry didn't sympathize with Protestantism. He had previously defended the Catholic faith against Luther, earning the title "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X. Henry sought a restoration of royal power against papal intervention, rather than a full reformation. However, Lutheran and Wycliffe's ideas were circulating in England, with supporters hopeful of a split between Henry and the papacy. Wycliffe's vision of a national church under civil authority aligned with Henry's policies and Cranmer's aspirations.

The final break occurred in 1534 when Parliament enacted laws that forbade payments to Rome, declared Henry's marriage to Catherine invalid, rendering Mary illegitimate, and proclaimed the king as the supreme head of the Church of England. To enforce this, anyone calling the king a heretic was deemed a traitor. Sir Thomas More, a former chancellor and friend of Henry, opposed these laws and was imprisoned. Despite pressure from his daughter to accept the king's authority, More refused, stating, "I never intend to pin my conscience to another man's back." He was executed for refusing to affirm the king's headship of the church, declaring he died "the king's good servant, but God's first". He was canonized by the Catholic Church in 1935.

Initially, these changes represented a schism with limited doctrinal adjustments. However, figures like Cranmer sought a thorough reformation, using the situation as an opportunity. Henry VIII remained largely conservative in religious beliefs, his primary motivation being political. Religious laws shifted based on political considerations. Upon becoming head of the Church, Henry annulled his marriage to Catherine and formalized his marriage to Anne Boleyn. After Anne produced a daughter, Elizabeth, she was executed for adultery. Henry then married Jane Seymour, who bore him a son, Edward VI. After Jane's death, Henry married Anne of Cleves to align with German Lutherans, but divorced her when the alliance proved unfavorable. His fifth wife, Catherine Howard, supported conservative positions, causing difficulties for reformers. Henry then aligned with Charles V against France. After Catherine Howard was executed, his last wife, Catherine Parr, supported the Reformation, placing opponents in a precarious position until Henry's death in 1547.

During Henry's reign, reformist ideas spread, partly due to Cranmer's order to translate the Bible into English and place it in every church. The impact of these translations can still be seen in the Lord's Prayer such as the term "trespasses" in William Tyndale's translation and "debts" in Miles Coverdale's. The English Bible became a tool for reformers to highlight scriptural passages supporting their views. The suppression of monasteries weakened the conservative faction, and humanists saw an opportunity for reformation without the perceived excesses of German Protestantism. By the time of Henry's death, the Reformation had gained significant support across the kingdom.

Edward VI

Henry's will stipulated that his son Edward would succeed him, followed by his daughters Mary and Elizabeth. Edward VI was sickly and reigned for only six years. During the first three years of his reign, under the regency of the Duke of Somerset, reform made significant strides. Communion was restored to the laity, clergy were allowed to marry, and images were removed from churches. The most significant achievement was the publication of the Book of Common Prayer, primarily authored by Cranmer, providing the English people with a liturgy in their own language.

Following Somerset's regency, the Duke of Northumberland continued the reformation policies for political reasons. A revised edition of the Book of Common Prayer was published, indicating a shift towards Zwinglian theology. For instance, the original version read, "The body of our Lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life", while the revised edition read, "Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving." The updated version reflects a more Zwinglian view. Reformist leaders, increasingly inclined toward reformed theology, had reasons to hope for further success.

Mary Tudor

When Edward VI died, his half-sister Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, ascended to the throne. Mary was a devout Catholic, viewing the Reformation as the source of her past dishonor. If Henry was right about the Church and his marriage to Catherine was never valid, then Mary was not legitimate and had no rights to the throne. For religious and political reasons, Mary aimed to restore Catholicism in England.

She had the support of her cousin Charles V, and conservative bishops. Cautiously, she solidified her domestic position and strengthened ties with the Habsburgs by marrying Philip of Spain. Feeling secure, Mary initiated repressive measures against Protestants. In 1554, England officially returned to papal obedience, undoing the changes made during the reigns of Henry and Edward. Feast days of saints were restored, married clergy were ordered to separate from their wives, and open persecution of Protestant leaders ensued. Approximately 300 Protestants were burned at the stake, and countless others were imprisoned or exiled.

This earned her the moniker "Bloody Mary". John Foxe's Book of Martyrs (1563) highlighted the suffering of Protestants during her reign. Originally intended as a tribute to martyrs throughout history, it shifted focus to recent English Protestant martyrs, illustrated by numerous woodcuts depicting their cruel deaths. The book became standard educational material, especially among Puritans, fostering lasting animosity towards Catholics.

The most notable martyr was Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. His case was sent to Rome, and he was condemned as a heretic. To break the Protestant movement, Mary sought to force Cranmer to recant. He was forced to watch the executions of his supporters, Bishops Latimer and Ridley. Under duress, Cranmer signed a recantation. Despite this, he was still condemned to death. At his public recantation before his execution, Cranmer surprised everyone by retracting his earlier statement: "They were written contrary to the truth which I thought in my heart and written for fear of death to save my life if it might be. And for as much as I have written many things contrary to what I believe in my heart, my hand shall first be punished. For if I may come to the fire, it shall first be burned. As for the pope, I refuse him for Christ's enemy and antichrist with all his false doctrine." He then held his hand in the fire until it was charred. This act redeemed him in the eyes of Protestants, making earlier wavering forgotten.

Elizabeth

Mary died in 1558. Her half-sister Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, succeeded her. Charles V had suggested Mary execute Elizabeth, but Mary didn't. Now, Elizabeth undid Mary's policies. Many who had fled England for religious reasons under Mary returned, bringing Zwinglian and Calvinist ideas. Like Mary, Elizabeth was driven by both conviction and political necessity. If the Pope, not the King, was the head of the Church then Henry's marriage to Catherine was valid. Under this, then Elizabeth was illegitimate.

Pope Paul IV implied that he would recognize Elizabeth's legitimacy if she remained within the Roman Communion. But Elizabeth did notify him of assuming the throne. She believed her father was right in proclaiming himself head to the church. She then took the mantle as supreme governor of the Church of England. Elizabeth was not an extremist.

Her vision was a uniform church that united the kingdom, but also allowed tolerance for diverse opinions. There would be no room for Roman Catholicism or extreme Protestantism. Any moderate Protestantism would be acceptable as long as it was under the umbrella of the Church Of England. The new edition of the Book of Common Prayer included the old and new traditions that ministers used when offering communion. The text now read: "The body of our lord Jesus Christ, which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life. Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee and feed on him in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving." One remembers in remembrance of the death of Christ, and the other partaking the true body of Christ.

The Thirty-Nine Articles (1562) served as the doctrinal foundation for the Church of England. They rejected some Catholic doctrines and practices, but did not try to choose between the Protestant views. Anglicanism sought to foster a via media between Rome and other churches.

During Elizabeth's reign, Catholicism continued to exist albeit precariously. Some Catholics wanted to install Mary Stuart, the queen of Scotland, on the throne because if Elizabeth was illegitimate, Mary Stuart would gain the English throne. Exiled Catholic leaders said that Elizabeth was a heretical usurper. Graduates of Catholic seminaries secretly went to England where they risked their life taking sacraments to the faithful. It was difficult to distinguish between secret meetings and conspiracies against the Queen. Infiltrated Catholics who conspired against the queen were captured and killed.

Most conspiracies focused on crowning Mary Stuart. It is unclear whether Mary inspired these conspiracies. Ultimately, she was involved in them and was executed. Roughly the same number of people were killed under Elizabeth as under Mary Tudor, although Elizabeth reigned for almost ten times as long. Towards the end of the reign, Catholics showed they could make a distinction between religious obedience to the pope and political loyalty to the Queen. It was on this basis they would be allowed to practice their religion openly. The number of Puritans began to grow. Inspired by Calvinist ideas, they insisted on their need to restore the pure practices and doctrines of the New testament. Puritans would become a driving force in English religious life.

The Reformation in Scotland

The Kingdom of Scotland traditionally aligned with France against England. In the 16th century, the country divided between those who supported the old policies and those who wanted closer ties with England. The new policy was further bolstered when James VI of Scotland married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII of England. When Henry VIII became King of England, there was hope the two kingdoms could live in peace. James V, the son of James IV and Margaret Tudor, was Henry's nephew, and Henry tried to marry James to his daughter Mary. However, Scotland went back to working with France, with James marrying the French Mary of Guise. From that point on, the two British kingdoms followed opposite courses, particularly in matters affecting reformating the church and its relations with the papacy. While this was taking place, Protestantism was creeping in.

Since a much earlier date than Luther, the doctrines of the Lollards and the Hussites had found followers in the country. Many Scots who had studied in Germany brought with them the ideas of Luther and other reformers. Laws were created against those writings. Martyring began in 1528, with many more executed, but Protestantism continued to grow. Protestantism became prominent among the nobility who hated the growing power of the crown and the loss of ancient privileges, and university students whom circulated Protestant teachings. When James V died in 1542, his daughter Mary Stuart was the heir to the throne, with this came fighting to gain power over her. Henry VIII wanted to marry the young Queen to his son Edward, which was sought by Scottish Protestant noblemen. The Catholic, Francophiles wanted Mary sent to France for her education and married to a French prince. They succeeded.

A group of Protestants took the castle of Saint Andrews and killed the Catholic archbishop. The government was torn by inner conflict. After a siege, the troops were withdrawn, and Protestants from throughout the kingdom started to see Andrews the bastion of their faith. It was at this time when John Knox entered the scene. Born nearly 1515, he studied theology and was ordained a priest before 1540. Knox was made preacher for the protestant community.

The Protestants in Saint Andrews could hold out as both France and England were going through difficult times. Eventually France sent reinforcements to Scotland. Knox and others were captured, and were condemned to cruel labor. He was eventually released thanks to England. He then spent some time in Geneva with Calvin and in Zurich with Bullinger, Zwingli's successor. He also visited Scotland twice seeking to strengthen the resolve of the Protestant community. Young Mary Stuart had been sent to France to be raised in the House of Guise. Her mother, also of that family, remained in Scotland as regent. In April 1558, Mary married the heir to the French throne, who was crowned Francis II. Mary, sixteen years old, was both queen consort of France and titular queen of Scotland. Upon Mary Tudor's death, Mary Stuart took the title of queen of England, which made her the about enemy of her cousin Elizabeth. In Scotland, the pro Catholic Mary of Guise ruled as regent. Her pro Catholic policies forced Protestant leaders to unite, promising to serve the word of God and his congregation they were then known as the lords of the congregation.

The regent ordered increased persecution against the heretics and in 1558 organize themselves into a church. Knox wrote a virulent attack against the women who then reigned in Europe. His work, was poorly timed, for it had scarcely been circulated in England with the death of Mary Tudor and succeeded by Elizabeth. Despite having written it against her dead half-sister, Elizabeth still resented it. The regent requested troops from France in order to crush the lords of the congregation. the army was lacking in material resources, they sent repeated appeals to England Elizabeth decided to send troops to Scotland and thus a war seemed inevitable.

The Regent died, and the French wanted piece. Both French and British withdrew their troops. Disputes began between Knox and the Lords with money, which was sought over the riches of the church. The nobles decided to invite Mary Stuart to return to Scotland and claim the throne. She arrived in 1561. Mary insisted on having mass celebrated in her private chapel. Knox himself seems to have been convinced that a clash with the queen was inevitable.

From the time of her arrival, Mary insisted on having mass celebrated in her private chapel, and the fiery reformer began preaching against the idolatry of the new Jezebel. She caused her own downfall in her dream for the Throne of England. She even married her Cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley in order to strengthen her opportunity for the Throne. When Murray's objections went unheeded, he rebelled. Mary then called upon James Hepburn, lord Bothwell an able leader against Murray.

Having lost Murray's counsel, Mary's policies became increasingly unwise. Shorty after, Donnelly was murdered, and the main suspect was Bothwell. She then married Bothwell a few months later. They soon rebelled, and the queen sought to quell the rebellion. These convinced her that they had proof of her participation in Darnley's death and gave her the choice of either abdicating or being tried for murder. She abdicated in favor of her one-year-old son, James VI, whom she had had with Darnley, and Murray returned from England as regent of Scotland.

Mary managed to escape and raise an army to support her cause, but she was defeated by Murray's troops, and her only recorse was to flee to England. Although she was a prisoner and not allowed to leave the castle where she resided, there were strict orders she be treated as a queen. She was hub for many conspiracies to have Elizabeth killed, thus taking the throne. Ultimately, Mary was found to be a participant to the conspiracies and was sentenced to death. From there on she died with royal dignity.

In Scotland, Mary's exile didn't end the disputes among the parties. Knox supported the regency of Murray, but there was still much opposition when the reformer Suffered an attack of paralysis. He then told his fellow Scots that they must continue their struggle unless they suffer a similar fate to the Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre of Protestants in France. He died a few days later. By then, it was apparent that Scotland had been won by the Reformed tradition.

War of Schmalkalden

The peace of Nuremberg, signed in 1532, allowed Protestants the free exercise of their faith in their own territories but prohibited any further expansion of Protestantism. Protestantism continued its expansion. The political situation in Germany was complex. Even apart from religious matters, there were many who feared the growing power of the house of Habsburg, Some of these were Catholic princes who suspected that Charles would use his opposition to Lutheranism for aggrandizement of his house.

Philip of Hess rested the Duchy Of Wurttemberg from the Catholics. Population of the duchy had already given signs of inclination toward Lutheranism. Another severe blow for German Catholicism was the death of duke George of Saxony in 1539. Saxony was divided into two separate territories: Ducal Saxony and Electoral Saxony. At George's death, his brother and successor, Henry, declared himself a Protestant, and Luther was invited to preach at The capital in Leipzig. Brandenburg also became Protestant. Charles' hands were tied as he was involved in too many conflicts.

Charles also turned it to a more conciliatory policy. However, the League of Schmalkaldin took over the territories of Henry of Brunswick, the emperor's Staunchest ally in Northern Germany. realizing that the majority of the people in their diocese leaned toward Lutheranism, turned their possessions into secular states, But the fact remained that Protestantism seemed on the verge of overrunning all of Germany.

A blow came from the bigamy of Philip of Hesse. He consulted the main Protestant theologians, and Luther, Melancon, and Bucer, agreed that the Bible did not forbid polygamy and that Philip could take a second wife without setting the first aside. Also the refusal of duke Maurice of Saxony to join the league had weakened it. The death of Luther in 1546 had also weakened the Protestant party. Charles invaded Germany and captured both Philip of Hesse and John Frederick.

The Interim

the emperor was content with promulgating the Augsburg interim. All Germans were to obey this interim, so called because it was to be the law of the land until a general council could be convened to decide on the issues and debate. The council of Trent had begun its accessions three years earlier in 1545. By means of the interim, he hoped to gain the time necessary to set in motion such a reformation. Neither Catholics nor Protestants were gratified by this attempt to legislate on matters of conscience. Melancton, however, agreed to a modified version the Leipzig interim. But even this was not acceptable to the majority of Lutherans.

Charles was unable to exploit the advantages gained by the war of Schmalkaldin. There were rumors that in order to capture Philip, Charles had made use of means that sullied his honor. The Protestant princes, were drawn together by their opposition to the interim. Maurice joined the conspiracy which caused the king, Henry the second of France, to invade Charles possessions. Charles was forced to flee. After his escape, Charles had instructed his armies to retake Metz.

Charles policy was a almost complete failure. Ferdinand agreed with the rebellious princes on the peace of Passau. By the terms of this agreement, Philip of Hess and John Frederick of Saxony were freed, and freedom of religion was granted throughout the empire. By the terms of this agreement, it did not mean that all subjects were free to choose their own religion, but rather that local rulers could make that decision for themselves and for their subjects. In 1555, he began to rid himself of his territories. In 1555, he began to rid himself of his territories. In favor of his son Philip, he abdicated first the Low Countries and then his Italian possessions and the throne of Spain. He died two years later in September 1558.

The new emperor, Ferdinand the first, abandoned his brother's religious policy. Under his rule, Protestantism continued expanding to new areas, these tensions would lead to the Thirty Years' War to which we shall return to later.

Scandinavian Lutheranism

In Scandinavia, monarchs took up the Reformation as their cause, and its triumph was also theirs. Since the crown was elective, at the time of each election, the magnates, both civil and ecclesiastic, run new concessions from those who would be elected. When the reformation broke out in Germany, the Scandinavian throne was occupied by Christian the second, who was married to Isabella, Charles the fifth's sister. Christian massacred many Swedish aristocrats. Magnates throughout Christian's territories feared that the king would turn on them and thus Christian had claimed that he sought to free the people of Sweden from the oppression by means of massacre.

Christian then tried to use the reformation as a tool for his own ends. He claimed himself was the champion of Catholicism, but was defeated. Frederick the first was a Protestant had made himself King of Denmark and Norway. But Protestantism, allowed free reign, made rapid gains. and was granted toleration. Eventually, the entire Danish church subscribed to the confession of Augsburg. Meanwhile, events in sweeden were following a similar course.

A few months after the last proclamation, he entered Stockholm in triumph. But the royal title carried little authority. The new king followed a subtle policy of dividing his enemies. At first, his harsher measures were directed against the bishops. bishops.