cons 101 revised

Traditional & Novel Approaches to Conservation

Pleistocene Megafauna Extinctions

  • Large mammals (species over 100 lbs), such as mammoths, giant sloths, and saber-toothed cats, experienced extinction at the end of the Ice Age.

    • Causes:

    • Clovis Overkill Hypothesis: Posits that early human hunting led to the overexploitation of large mammals.

    • Climate Change: Post-glacial warming decreased habitats suitable for cold-adapted species.

  • Impact: Resulted in the loss of ecosystem engineers that played essential roles in shaping landscapes.

Pre-colonial and Traditional Conservation

  • Ethiopian Church Forests: Sacred sites that help to preserve biodiversity by protecting native flora and fauna.

  • Sacred Groves: Found in India and Nigeria, these areas are safeguarded by cultural taboos, encompassing both ecological and spiritual value.

  • BC First Nations Practices:

    • Clam Gardens: Managed clam beds that ensure sustainable shellfish harvesting.

    • Salmon Stewardship: Regulated fishing practices that preserve salmon populations and their habitats.

  • These examples highlight Indigenous ecological knowledge long before Western conservation approaches emerged.

History of Yellowstone National Park

  • Established in 1872, Yellowstone is recognized as the first national park in the world.

    • Founded on the idea of "empty wilderness," leading to the exclusion of Indigenous peoples like the Shoshone, Crow, Lakota, and Nez Perce to accommodate tourism and scientific exploration.

  • Yellowstone has served as a model for other national parks globally, such as Banff (1885) and Kruger (1926).

19th-Century Extinctions

  • Passenger Pigeon: Once numbered in the billions, this species became extinct by 1914 largely due to excessive hunting.

  • Bison: Targeted for mass slaughter as a method to starve Indigenous communities, leading to severe population declines.

  • These extinctions prompted early conservation efforts and reforms.

Conservation Thinkers

  • John Muir: Advocated for a preservationist ethic, emphasizing the inherent spiritual value of wilderness that necessitates protection.

  • Gifford Pinchot: Developed the resource conservation ethic focused on the sustainable management of forest resources.

  • Aldo Leopold: Founded the land ethic, which posits that humans are part of a biotic community and hold a moral responsibility towards nature.

Fortress Conservation

  • Definition: A model characterized by "fines and fences" that excludes local human populations from natural areas to protect wildlife.

    • Examples:

    • Kruger National Park: Involves evictions of local communities.

    • Virunga National Park: Militarized ranger activities to protect wildlife.

    • India’s Project Tiger: Focused on tiger conservation often at the expense of local livelihoods.

  • Criticism: This approach leads to the displacement of communities, inequality, and potential violence against locals.

"Poachers" & Class Prejudice

  • Originated from England’s Waltham Black Acts of 1723, which targeted poor hunters while protecting wealthy elites.

  • Established enduring class biases that continue to shape conservation enforcement practices today.

Biodiversity & Biogeography

Definition of Biodiversity

  • Defined as “The variety of life across genes, species, and ecosystems” (Noss & Cooperrider, 1994).

Main Components of Biodiversity

  1. Genetic Diversity: Variation within species, exemplified by different dog breeds.

  2. Species Diversity: The number of different species present in a given area.

  3. Ecosystem Diversity: The variety of habitats and biomes within a region.

Measuring Biodiversity

  • Alpha Diversity: Measures species richness within a single site.

  • Beta Diversity: Assesses species turnover between different sites.

  • Gamma Diversity: Evaluates overall diversity across a larger region.

  • Noteworthy: Relying solely on species counts overlooks functional diversity.

Functional Diversity

  • Definition: Pertains to the variety of roles and traits that species fulfill within an ecosystem.

  • Example: Differences between African wild dogs, which are obligate cooperative breeders, and wolves, which are facultative cooperative breeders.

Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis

  • States that moderate disturbance events (such as fires or floods) can foster higher levels of biodiversity.

Latitudinal Gradient

  • Observes that species richness generally increases as one approaches the equator, with tropical regions displaying greater biodiversity compared to polar areas.

Biodiversity Hotspots

  • Defined by having high endemism combined with significant threats to its species.

    • Example: Fynbos biome in South Africa has 70% of its flora being endemic.

    • Example: Madagascar is known for its unique species, including lemurs and unusual reptiles.

The Anthropocene

Definition

  • The Anthropocene is a proposed epoch characterized by the dominance of human activity over Earth’s systems, including climate, biosphere, and oceans.

Anthropocene vs. Holocene

  • Holocene: A period marked by a stable climate that has lasted approximately 10,000 years.

  • Anthropocene: Notable for rapid changes driven by industrialization and capitalism.

Start Points for the Anthropocene

  • Various potential starting points debated, including:

    • Early Agriculture: Approximately 10,000 years Before Present (BP).

    • Industrial Revolution: Starting around 1750.

    • Great Acceleration: Emergence in the 1950s characterized by a rapid increase in human activity.

Stratigraphic Indicators of the Anthropocene

  • Key indicators include:

    • Presence of plastics

    • Plutonium fallout

    • Notable spikes in CO₂ levels

    • Increases in nitrogen from fertilizers

    • Microplastics found in sediment layers.

Great Acceleration

  • Refers to the exponential growth in various human activities and impacts since the 1950s, which is evidenced by:

    • Population growth

    • Increased CO₂ emissions

    • Expansion in agriculture

    • Deforestation

    • Escalation of pollution levels.

  • The trends can be visualized through the Keeling Curve, which tracks atmospheric CO₂ levels at Mauna Loa.

Human Progress vs. Environmental Trade-offs

  • Improvements noted in metrics such as life expectancy, literacy rates, and Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

  • However, these developments correspond with declines in:

    • Forest cover

    • Biodiversity

    • Climate stability.

  • Hothouse Earth Hypothesis suggests that warming feedback loops may reach a point of irreversibility due to human influences.

Nature’s Value

Ecosystem Services (ES)

  • Definition: Refers to the benefits that humans obtain from ecosystems.

    • Categories of Ecosystem Services:

    • Provisioning Services: Include resources such as food, water, and timber.

    • Regulating Services: Involve natural processes like flood control and pollination.

    • Cultural Services: Encompass recreational and aesthetic benefits.

    • Supporting Services: Involve nutrient cycling and soil formation.

Externalities

  • Definition: Hidden costs associated with environmental degradation that are not factored into market prices.

  • Example: Mining for electronics typically results in pollution and deforestation that are not accounted for in the product’s price.

Major Theories on Ecosystem Service Valuation

  • Costanza et al. (1997): Estimated global value of ecosystem services to be approximately $33 trillion per year.

  • Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005): Proposed a framework categorizing ecosystem services into four distinct types.

Examples of Ecosystem Services

  • Mangrove Forests: Crucial in preventing coastal erosion, storing carbon, and supporting fisheries.

  • Costa Rica Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): A program where landowners are compensated for conserving forests, leading to an increase in forest area from 394,000 to 2.45 million hectares.

  • Catskills Watershed Protection: NYC protected its watershed, avoiding the cost of an $8 billion filtration plant by conserving existing wetlands.

Documentary Films

Key Films Related to Environmental Themes

  • Beast (2020): Explores themes of fear, empathy, and animal embodiment.

  • My Octopus Teacher (2020): Highlights human-animal connections and critiques scientific detachment.

  • Pangolin: Kulu’s Story (2018): Presents an anti-poaching message through emotional storytelling.

  • Grizzly Man (Werner Herzog): Provokes ethical questions regarding obsession and human boundaries in wildlife.

Coral Reefs & Climate Change

Key Concepts Related to Coral Reefs

  • Coral reefs occupy less than 0.1% of the seafloor but sustain around 25% of marine biodiversity.

  • Main Threats to Coral Reefs:

    • Global warming

    • Ocean acidification

    • Overfishing

    • Pollutants from runoff

    • Coastal development.

  • Coral Bleaching: A phenomenon where heat stress causes corals to expel their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae), leading to loss of color and vital nutrients.

Restoration Efforts

  • Coral Gardening: Involves cultivating coral species to restore damaged reefs.

  • Selective Breeding: Aims to enhance corals’ resilience to changing conditions.

  • Artificial Reefs: Constructed to provide new habitats for marine life.

  • Acoustic Enrichment: Attempts to restore soundscapes in marine environments hampered by noise pollution.

  • Challenges: Issues surrounding scaling restoration efforts and associated financial costs ranging from $6,000 to $261 million per hectare.

Salmon Conservation

Pacific Salmon Species

  • The five main species include:

    • Chinook

    • Coho

    • Sockeye

    • Chum

    • Pink.

  • Anadromous Life Cycle:

    • Adults spawn in freshwater rivers.

    • Juveniles migrate to the ocean for maturation.

    • They return to their natal rivers for spawning before dying.

Stock Extinctions

  • Over 100 salmon stocks in the U.S. have gone extinct, with more than 120 stocks in British Columbia, primarily due to habitat loss associated with dams and water diversions.

Freshwater Barriers

  • Major constructions like large dams (e.g., Columbia River Basin) inhibit salmon migration, leading to alternatives like fish ladders.

  • Additional structures such as culverts, floodgates, and pumps contribute to stream fragmentation in BC, blocking an estimated 1,500 kilometers of salmon habitat.

Urbanization Impacts

  • Approximately 20% of streams within Metro Vancouver have been lost under urban development.

  • Culverts and floodgates can exacerbate habitat fragmentation and lead to increased fish mortality rates.

Climate Impacts on Salmon

  • Fraser River temperatures have risen by 2°C, frequently surpassing thermal limits for salmon survivability.

  • A significant die-off occurred in 2022, coinciding with drought and heatwave conditions on Vancouver Island.

  • Climate change interferes with migration patterns, egg survival rates, and overall spawning success.

Resilient Salmon Stocks

  • Northern populations of salmon demonstrate greater resilience factors including:

    • Reduced habitat disturbance.

    • Shorter periods spent in freshwater systems.

    • Flexibility in choosing spawning locations.

    • Example: Pink salmon represent a notably resilient population.

Hatchery Practices

  • Production Hatcheries: Aim to increase fishery yields.

  • Conservation Hatcheries: Focus on preserving endangered wild stocks.

  • Debate: While hatcheries may prevent local extinction, they also risk genetic mixing with wild populations and increased competition.

Historical Barriers and Challenges

  • Hells Gate Incident (1913): Landslide obstructed Fraser River, necessitating construction of fishways.

  • Big Bar Event (2019): Blocked about 50% of salmon migrations; solutions included blasting, utilizing the "Salmon Cannon", and deploying temporary hatcheries.

  • Chilcotin Landslide (2024): Another significant landslide endangering salmon migration routes.

Causes of Salmon Decline in British Columbia

  1. Climate warming

  2. Reduced food availability due to ocean competition

  3. Dams and physical barriers to migration

  4. Habitat loss and fragmentation

  5. Urban development leading to poor water quality.

Whales & Orcas

Marine Mammal Ethics

  • Captivity has various negative effects on marine mammals:

    • Stress

    • Aggression

    • Collapsed dorsal fins

    • Abnormal behaviors.

  • Example: Film Blackfish (2013) focuses on the orca Tilikum, revealing the psychological trauma resulting from captivity in marine parks.

Cetacean Intelligence

  • Cetaceans, notably orcas, display high emotional intelligence (EQ) ratings between 1.8 and 5.

  • Evidence of self-awareness, dialectical communication, and cultural transmission of behaviors.

  • Orcas utilize distinct calls pertaining to their pods and exhibit signs of grief (e.g., mother orca J35 carrying her deceased calf).

Southern Resident Orcas (SRKWs)

  • Current population: Approximately 73 individuals as of 2024.

  • Key threats faced by SRKWs include:

    • Decreasing Chinook salmon populations as a critical food resource.

    • PCB pollution leading to toxic bioaccumulation.

    • Vessel noise interference affecting echolocation capabilities.

  • Conservation measures include ending captivity through legislation (2019 law), instituting quieter boat zones, and proposing the creation of whale sanctuaries.

Tribal Renewable Energy

Context

  • Focus on Navajo Nation and the development of clean energy initiatives within tribal lands.

  • Challenges encountered include:

    • Delays in federal funding timelines.

    • Limited access to data.

    • Gaps in workforce availability.

Decision Support Tools

  • Renewable Energy Siting Tool (REST): A resource that integrates cultural, social, and environmental data to assist communities in energy decision-making.

Uncommon Dialogue Method

  • This approach promotes community engagement through:

    • Understanding the people and places involved.

    • Co-developing practical solutions for clean energy.

    • Emphasizing the importance of early and respectful engagement while advocating for energy sovereignty for Indigenous nations.