• Human development- the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

• Longitudinal design- research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time

• Cross-sectional design- research design in which several different participant age-groups are studied at one particular point in time

• Cross-sequential design- research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally

• Cohort effect- the impact on development occurring when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience

• Nature- the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

• Nurture- the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions

• Genetics- the science of inherited traits

• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)- special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

• Gene- section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements

• Chromosome- tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA

• Dominant- referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait

• Recessive- referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with so identical gene

• Ovum- the female sex cell, or egg

• Sperm- the male sex cell

• Zygote- cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm

• Monozygotic twins- identical twins formed when one zygote splits in two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

• Dizygotic twins- often called fraternal twins, occurring when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

• Bioethics- the study of ethical and moral issues brought about  by new advances in biology and medicine

• Germinal period- first 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining

• Embryo- name for the developing organism from 2 weeks to 8 weeks after fertilization

• Embryonic period- the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop

• Critical periods- times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

• Teratogen- any factor that can cause a birth defect (drug, chemical, virus, etc.)

• Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs)- a group of possible conditions caused by a mother consuming alcohol during pregnancy, in which a combination of physical, mental, and behavioral problems may be present

• Fetal period- the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth or the baby

• Fetus- name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby

• Premature- babies born before 38 weeks

• Reflexes- innate involuntary behavior patterns that help the infant survive, can be tested to see if the nervous system is working properly

• Synaptic pruning- necessary loss of neurons as unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning ones

• Cognitive development- the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory

-at 1 yr a baby has tripled its birth weight and added another foot to its height

-the brain triples its weight in the first 2 yrs reaching about 75% of its adult weight

-by 5 yrs old the brain is 90% its adult weight

• Schema- a mental concept or framework that guides organization and interpretation of information, which forms and evolves through experiences with objects and events

• Assimilation- trying to understand new things in terms of schemas they already possess

• Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 yrs old)- Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its sense and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment

• Object permanence- the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

• Preoperational stage (2 to 7 yrs old)- Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world

-they begin to ask questions and explore more

• Egocentrism- the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes

• Centration- in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relative features

• Conservation- in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature

• Irreversibility- in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

• Concrete operations stage (7 to 12 yrs old)- Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking

-they begin to think more logically and think they know more than others

• Formal operations stage (12 yrs to adulthood)- Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

-alternative could by relativistic thinking who have found their “blavk and white” way of thinking challenged by diversity as they encounter the college environment (recognizing that not all problems can be solved with pure logic, there can be multiple points of view on the same problem

• Scaffolding- process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

• Zone of proximal development (ZPD)- Vygotsky’s concept of the difference of  what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher

• Temperament- the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as “easy,” “difficult,” and “slow to warm up;” the enduring characteristics with which each person is born

-one of the first ways in which infants demonstrate that that have different personalities is their temperament, behavioral and emotional characteristics

1. Easy: regular schedules of waking, sleeping, eating and are adaptable to change; happy and easily soothed

2. Difficult: opposite of easy; loud, active, crabby

3. Slow to warm up: mix of both, warms up to new people and situations

• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)- a neurodevelopmental disorder that actually encompasses a whole range of problems in thinking, feeling, language, and social skills in relating to others

-a main problem can be not possessing a theory of mind

• Theory of mind- the ability to understand not only your own mental states, such as beliefs, intentions, and desires that may be different from yours

• Attachment- the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver

-Attachment styles by Mary Ainsworth

-based on behavior of mother and temperament of infant

1. Secure: Looked for mother but left her lap

2. Avoidant: didn’t look for mother, little concern for her absence

3. Ambivalent: unwilling to explore regardless of the mother’s presence

4. Disorganized-disoriented: is afraid to make eye contact, seemed fearful and looked dazed

• Self-concept- the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important significant people in one’s life

• Erickson’s Theory 9 development occurs in a series of 8 stages, with the first 4 occurring in infancy and childhood (Figure 8.4)

-each is an emotional turning point in personality, and the emotional crisis stage in each stage must be for a normal, healthy, psychological development

-when a baby under the age of 6 months cries, it is an instinctive reaction meant to get the caregiver to tend to the baby’s needs- hunger, thirst, pain, and even loneliness

• Adolescence- the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult

• Puberty- the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak

• Personal fable- type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm

• Imaginary audience- type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

• Kohlberg’s 3 Levels of Morality- the knowledge of right and wrong behavior

-Preconventional morality (very young children)

-Conventional morality- (older children, adolescents, and most adults)

-Postconventional morality- (about ⅕ of the adult population)

• Erickson’s Identity versus role confusion- stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self

-must choose values and beliefs, political issues, career options, marriage

• Emerging adulthood- a time from late adolescence through the 20s referring to those who are childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough money to be independent, mainly found in developed countries

• Menopause- the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability

• Andropause- gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-aged males

• Intimacy- the emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self (Erickson’s intimacy vs. isolation: forming relationships)

• Generativity- providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work (Erickson’s generativity vs. stagnation: parenting)

• Authoritarian parenting- style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child

• Permissive parenting- style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any, demands on a child’s behavior

• Permissive neglectful- permissive parenting in which parent is uninvolved with child or child’s behavior

• Permissive indulgent- permissive parenting in which parent is so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits

• Authoritative parenting- style of parenting in which parent combines warmth and affection with firm limits in a child’s behavior

• Ego integrity- sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life possessing the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego

• Cellular-clock theory- cells are limited to the number of times they can reproduce to repair damage, as this accumulates it could result in the effects of aging

• Wear-and-tear theory- result of stress, physical exertion, and bodily damage produce the effects of aging

• Free-radical theory- oxygen molecules with an unstable electron increase damage to structures inside the cell producing the effects of aging

Activity theory- theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby