From the Roaring Twenties to the New Deal: U.S. History Overview (1920s–1930s)

Republican Politics in the 1920s

  • Harding (1921–1923):

    • Policies: Pro-business, weak leadership, return to pre-WWI conservatism ("Return to Normalcy").

    • Scandals: Teapot Dome scandal - Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall leased oil reserves for bribes.

  • Coolidge (1923–1929):

    • Policies: Laissez-faire, limited government intervention. "The business of America is business."

    • Legacy: Supported economic growth but did little to address economic inequality or farm distress.

  • Hoover (1929–1933):

    • Policies: Laissez-faire, believed aid should come from charity, not government. Response to the Depression was too little, too late.

    • Bonus Army (1932): WWI veterans protested for early bonus payment; Hoover used military force to disperse them, damaging his popularity.

  • Theme: Federal government shrank in power, prioritizing business over labor.

Roaring Economy & Mass Consumption

  • Economic Boom:

    • GDP doubled; U.S. became a credit-driven economy.

    • Consumers bought goods (cars, radios, clothes) on installment credit ("Buy now, pay later").

  • Stock Market Boom:

    • Stock prices tripled; millions invested using margin buying (borrowing money to buy stocks).

    • Warning Signs: Stagnant wages, soaring profits, growing inequality, struggling farmers.

  • Advertising Explosion:

    • Emotion-based marketing encouraged more consumer spending.

The Crash of 1929 & Banking Crisis

  • Stock Market Crash (Oct 1929):

    • Triggered by speculative investments and over-leveraged borrowing (margin buying).

  • Bank Failures:

    • Over 9,000 banks collapsed; no FDIC protection led to widespread loss of savings.

  • Deflation & Unemployment:

    • Prices and wages fell; unemployment peaked at over 25% by 1933, leading to mass poverty and homelessness.

Hoover’s Response & Rising Discontent

  • Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC):

    • Provided loans to struggling banks and businesses, but too little, too late.

  • Bonus Army (1932):

    • WWI veterans protested for early bonus payments; Hoover’s forceful dispersal sparked public outrage.

  • Hoovervilles:

    • Shantytowns symbolized the suffering of Americans during the Depression.

Election of 1932 & FDR’s Rise

  • FDR’s Victory:

    • Franklin D. Roosevelt won a landslide, promising a “New Deal” based on Relief, Recovery, and Reform.

  • Fireside Chats:

    • FDR’s radio addresses helped reassure the public and explain his policies directly.

New Deal Agencies and Laws

  • Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) (1933)

    • Mission: To reduce crop supply, support farm incomes, and stabilize prices.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Recovery

    • Reason: Aimed to revive the agricultural economy by paying farmers to reduce crop production and slaughter livestock to stabilize supply and demand.

    • Details:

      • Created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA).

      • Government subsidies for not planting crops.

      • Funds raised by taxing companies that processed farm products.

      • First effort to address the economic welfare of farmers.

      • Outcome: Initially successful but later declared unconstitutional due to issues with affordability for consumers.

  • Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (1933)

    • Mission: Provide manual labor jobs for unemployed young men, focusing on conservation and natural resource development.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Relief

    • Reason: Provided immediate jobs and financial support to young, unemployed men, while improving national parks and rural land.

    • Details:

      • Short-term jobs improving infrastructure and natural resources (e.g., replanting trees, building parks).

      • Helped support families financially through wages paid to workers.

      • Temporary measure to combat unemployment and aid economic relief.

  • Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) (1933)

    • Mission: Refinance mortgages to prevent foreclosures and expand homeownership.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Relief

    • Reason: Provided short-term relief to homeowners facing foreclosure by refinancing loans.

    • Details:

      • Created a housing appraisal system that assessed lending risks in neighborhoods.

      • Helped to stabilize housing markets and protect homeowners.

  • National Recovery Administration (NRA) (1933)

    • Mission: To improve working conditions, limit competition, and assist businesses.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Recovery

    • Reason: Aimed to stabilize and revive the economy through fair wages, working hours, and cooperation among businesses.

    • Details:

      • Set codes for fair wages and working hours.

      • Encouraged businesses to reduce competition by joining the NRA.

      • Eventually declared unconstitutional due to anti-trust violations.

  • Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) (1933)

    • Mission: Provide regional development, including electricity, flood control, and economic growth in the Tennessee Valley.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Relief and Reform

    • Reason: Created both short-term jobs and long-term infrastructure improvements.

    • Details:

      • Focused on improving life in one of the most economically distressed regions of the U.S.

      • Developed industries like electricity and fertilizer, which helped revitalize the area.

  • Social Security Administration (SSA) (1935)

    • Mission: Provide financial support to the elderly, disabled, and unemployed through a federal tax.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Relief and Reform

    • Reason: While it provided immediate relief, Social Security was designed as a long-term reform to prevent poverty.

    • Details:

      • Funded by taxes on employers and employees.

      • Provided unemployment benefits, aid to dependent children, and welfare for the elderly and disabled.

  • Works Progress Administration (WPA) (1935)

    • Mission: Build public infrastructure and create jobs for the unemployed.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Recovery

    • Reason: Focused on providing large-scale job opportunities, boosting the economy by building infrastructure and public projects.

    • Details:

      • Created over 8.5 million jobs through public works (e.g., bridges, schools, theaters).

      • Had a significant impact on reducing unemployment and revitalizing the economy.

  • Federal Writers Project (FWP) (1935)

    • Mission: Provide employment to writers and document American culture.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Relief

    • Reason: Immediate relief to unemployed writers during the Great Depression.

    • Details:

      • Produced over 1,700 publications, including books, articles, local histories, and cultural guidebooks.

      • Provided employment to writers and contributed to the public’s knowledge of American history and culture.

  • Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) (1938)

    • Mission: Establish fair labor practices, including minimum wage and working hours.

    • Relief, Recovery, or Reform?: Reform

    • Reason: It restructured the labor system and introduced long-term protections for workers.

    • Details:

      • Set national standards for minimum wage, maximum working hours, and banned child labor.

      • Provided long-term reform to prevent the exploitation of workers and ensure fair treatment.

U.S. Foreign Policy, WWII & Cold War (1920s–1950s)

  • U.S. Isolationism After WWI (1920s–1930s)

    • Isolationism: Rejected Wilsonian globalism, focused on domestic issues.

    • Washington Naval Conference (1921): Naval arms reduction treaty.

    • Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): Outlawed war as a national policy (symbolic).

    • Neutrality Acts (1935–1937): Limited U.S. involvement in foreign wars by restricting arms sales and loans to belligerents.

  • Rise of Aggression (1930s)

    • Japan: Invaded Manchuria (1931), and later, China (1937).

    • Italy: Invaded Ethiopia (1935).

    • Germany: Hitler rearmed, annexed Austria (1938), and took Sudetenland (1938).

    • U.S. Response:

      • Cash-and-Carry (1939): Allowed arms sales if paid in cash and transported by buyers.

      • Lend-Lease Act (1941): Provided military aid to Allies, calling the U.S. the “arsenal of democracy.”

  • WWII: U.S. Entry & Total War

    • Pearl Harbor (Dec 7, 1941): Japan’s surprise attack led to U.S. declaration of war.

    • Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, Japan.

    • Allied Powers: U.S., Britain, USSR, China.

  • The American Homefront

    • War Production:

      • War Production Board (WPB) converted civilian industries to military production.

      • Office of Price Administration (OPA): Managed rationing and price controls.

    • Labor & Workforce:

      • Women: “Rosie the Riveter” symbolized women in defense jobs.

      • African Americans: Served in segregated units, with the Double V Campaign fighting fascism abroad and racism at home.

  • Racism & Internment

    • Executive Order 9066 (1942): Ordered the internment of 120,000 Japanese-Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens.

    • Korematsu v. U.S. (1944): Supreme Court upheld internment, though later criticized.

  • Post-War Effects & Cold War Begins

    • Europe First Strategy: Focus on defeating Germany before Japan.

    • D-Day (1944): Allied invasion of France.

    • VE Day (May 1945): Germany surrenders.

    • Hiroshima & Nagasaki (Aug 1945): Atomic bombings led to Japan’s surrender.

    • Cold War Begins:

      • Truman Doctrine (1947): U.S. aids countries resisting communism (Greece, Turkey).

      • Marshall Plan (1948): Economic aid to rebuild Western Europe.

      • Berlin Airlift (1948–1949): U.S. response to Soviet blockade.

Cold War America: Fear, Faith, and Cultural Control in the 1950s

  • Nuclear Armament & Atomic Culture

    • The Soviet Union detonated a nuclear bomb in 1949, intensifying nuclear fear in the U.S.

    • Atomic-themed consumer goods became widespread, reflecting a complex mixture of fear and fascination.

  • Red Scare & McCarthyism

    • Joseph McCarthy: Claimed to have a list of communists in the U.S. government, sparking the Red Scare.

    • Hollywood Blacklist (1947): HUAC investigated suspected communists in Hollywood, resulting in the blacklisting of artists.

    • McCarthy's Downfall (1954): His televised hearings were discredited after his attack on the U.S. Army, leading to his eventual fall from power.

  • Evangelical Christianity & Patriotism

    • Billy Graham emphasized that communism was evil and atheistic, promoting religious values as central to American identity.

    • The addition of “Under God” to the Pledge of Allegiance (1954) and “In God We Trust” on currency (1955) reflected this fusion of religion and anti-communism.

  • Cultural Censorship

    • Comic Book Panic (1954): Senate hearings led to the creation of the Comics Code Authority to censor comics with anti-authority or violent themes, reflecting cultural concerns about youth morality.

Quizlet Flashcards Content Summary

  • 1920s Presidents: Harding (pro-business, scandals), Coolidge (pro-business, limited regulation), Hoover (laissez-faire, no direct aid).

  • Advertising & Credit: Advertising grew, using emotion-based marketing; buying on credit led to mass consumption.

  • Stock Market Crash: Over-speculation, margin buying, and signs of economic inequality and stagnation triggered the crash.

  • Hoover's Response: Supported the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) but opposed direct government aid; seen as ineffective.

  • FDR's Promise: Promised a "New Deal" focused on relief, recovery, and reform.

  • New Deal Programs: CCC (employment in conservation), AAA (paid farmers to reduce production), NRA (set wages and hours).

  • Long-Term Effects: Shift from laissez-faire, welfare state beginnings, reshaped political alliances (New Deal Coalition).

  • Isolationism: Rejected globalism, focusing on domestic issues; policies like the Washington Naval Conference and Neutrality Acts.

  • Rise of Aggression: Japan invaded Manchuria (1931), Italy invaded Ethiopia (1935), and Germany rearmed and expanded.

  • U.S. Response to Aggression: Policies like Cash-and-Carry, Destroyers-for-Bases, and the Lend-Lease Act supported Allied nations.

  • U.S. Entry into WWII: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.

  • WWII Homefront: War Production Board converted industries, OPA controlled rationing, women (Rosie the Riveter) and African Americans joined the workforce.

  • Executive Order 9066: Authorized the internment of Japanese-Americans.

  • End of WWII: U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender.

  • Truman Doctrine: U.S. policy of aiding countries resisting communism, starting with Greece and Turkey in 1947.

  • Marshall Plan: U.S. economic aid to rebuild Western Europe after WWII, starting in 1948.

  • Cold War Begins: Tensions escalated between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after WWII.

  • Soviet Nuclear Bomb: Sparked fear of espionage and nuclear war, leading to a "nuclear culture."

  • Red Scare: Hoover warned of communists; loyalty tests implemented to root out communist influences.

  • Hollywood & McCarthyism: HUAC investigated Hollywood; blacklisting and sanitized patriotic films.

  • Impact of McCarthyism: Baseless accusations created fear.

  • Evangelical Christianity: Billy Graham linked Christianity with anti-communism.

  • Comic Book Panic: Concern over comic books led to self-censorship.

  • Cold War Cultural Control: Fear of nuclear war, communism, and moral decay led to loyalty tests, censorship, and intertwined religion with patriotism.