Radical reconstruction 5

Both Lincoln and Johnson anticipated that Congress could reject Southern legislators from the U. S. Senate or House of Representatives under a specific constitutional clause. This occurred when the “Radical Republicans,” led by Thaddeus Stevens, refused to seat newly elected Southern senators and representatives, opting for a different reconstruction plan than what Lincoln and Johnson had pursued. Over time, public support grew for those in Congress who believed African Americans should have full citizenship. By July 1866, Congress passed a civil rights bill and created a new Freedmen’s Bureau to prevent racial discrimination. Later, they ratified the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U. S. Southern state legislatures, excluding Tennessee, largely rejected this amendment and implemented codes to control African American freedmen, which varied by state.

Many Northerners viewed the Southern response as an attempt to restore slavery following the Civil War victory. Despite being a Unionist, Johnson's Southern Democrat background and negative rhetoric further alienated Republicans. In 1866, Republicans won congressional elections, allowing the Radicals to implement their reconstruction vision. The March 1867 Reconstruction Act divided the South into military districts. Southern states could escape military rule by establishing civil governments, ratifying the 14th Amendment, and ensuring African American voting rights.

The 15th Amendment, passed in 1869, prohibited denying the right to vote based on race. Frustrated with Johnson’s vetoes of protective legislation, Congress initiated impeachment proceedings against him. Although he was not convicted, this event established Congressional dominance. Ulysses S. Grant, elected president in 1868, would uphold Radical policies. By June 1868, most Southern states were readmitted. Many African Americans gained significant political representation, prompting Southern whites to resist through violence and groups like the Ku Klux Klan. This unrest led to the Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871 to protect African Americans’ civil rights.