AP Human Geography: Political Geography and Geopolitics Study Guide

Fundamental Concepts of Political Sovereignty and the State

A state is defined as a politically organized territory that is administered by a sovereign government and is recognized by the international community. Central to the concept of the state is sovereignty, which refers to the ability of a state to govern its territory free from the control of its internal affairs by other states. Within these political structures, a nation-state exists as a country whose population shares a common identity. In contrast, a binational or multinational state contains more than one nation, usually without one single dominant ethnic group. When a nationality is not represented by its own state, it is referred to as a stateless nation. Smaller entities, categorized as microstates, are states or territories that are characterized by being small in both physical size and total population. Related to the administration of these entities is the concept of government, which is the system or form by which a community or other political unit is governed.

State Morphology: The Geometric and Spatial Shapes of Sovereignty

Political geography categorizes states based on their physical shape and geographic layout, which often impacts their administration and stability. An elongated state is characterized by a long, narrow shape, while a fragmented state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory. A landlocked state is one that is completely surrounded by other land and lacks a direct outlet to the sea. A compact state is defined as a country in which the distance from the geographical center to any boundary does not vary significantly. A perforated state is a state that completely surrounds another state. Within these geographic arrangements, an enclave is a distinct region or community enclosed within a larger territory, whereas an exclave is a part of a country that is physically separated from the rest of the country and surrounded by foreign territory. Territoriality describes a country's or more local community's sense of property and attachment toward its territory, expressed through a determination to keep it inviolable and strongly defended.

Boundary Delineation and International Disputes

A boundary is an invisible line that marks the extent of a state's territory. These can be categorized as physical boundaries, which are defined by physical landmarks like rivers or lakes, or geometric boundaries, which are political boundaries defined and delimited by straight lines. Cultural boundaries are invisible lines created by specific cultural beliefs and traits. A fortified boundary is one created by building a physical structure, whereas a frontier is a zone separating two states in which neither state exercises political control. Internal boundaries divide the interior of a state into sections. In instances where states are within $200\,\text{miles}$ of each other, the median-line principle is used to distribute water ways. Disputes regarding boundaries and land are common and are categorized into four types: territorial disputes (disagreements over the possession or control of land), locational disputes (conflicts over location, usually associated with physical boundaries), allocation disputes (disagreements over the control or use of shared resources, such as boundary rivers or fishing grounds), and operational disputes (disagreements between neighboring states over policies applied to their common border, often induced by differing customs regulations, nomadic movement, or immigration issues).

Internal Political Organization and Electoral Geographies

States organize their internal power through various systems. A unitary state exists where most political power resides at the national level with limited local authority, while federal systems divide powers between the national government and state or provincial governments. Subnational entities are derivatives of the federal system and represent designated portions of a country. Every state typically has a core area, which is the portion containing the economic, political, intellectual, and cultural focus. Electoral geography is the study of the geographical elements of the organization and results of elections. This includes gerrymandering, the process of redrawing legislative boundaries to benefit the party in power. Related concepts include minority districting, which is the rearrangement of districts to allow a minority representative to be elected, and majority districting, which creates areas where the majority of constituents are racial or ethnic minorities, often used to sway electoral votes.

Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces: The Dynamics of Political Stability

The internal stability of a state is influenced by various forces. A centripetal force is an attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state, while a centrifugal force is a force that divides people and countries. Balkanization is the process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities. Fragmentation refers to the adherence to or embracing of regional and even local political authority, economic development, social and cultural associations, or ethnic divisions. Ethnic force occurs where an ethnic group shares a well-developed sense of belonging to the same culture. Irredentism is the policy of a state wishing to incorporate within itself territory inhabited by people with ethnic or linguistic links that lies within a neighboring state. Other factors include nationalism, a strong feeling of pride in and devotion to one’s country, and democratization, which is the spread of representative government and the process of making governments more representative.

Geopolitical Theories and Historical Frameworks

Geopolitics involves an interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products. Several theories attempt to explain global power structures. The Organic Theory, proposed by Friedrich Ratzel (the father of modern political geography), views states as resembling biological organisms with life cycles of youth, maturity, and old age. The Heartland Theory suggests that any political power based in the heart of Eurasia could eventually dominate the world. Conversely, Nicholas Spykman’s Rimland Theory argues that domination of the coastal fringes of Eurasia provides the base for world conquest. The Sea Power Theory, argued by Mahan in the late 1800s, posits that control of sea lanes leads to national strength. Historical context includes imperialism, where strong nations seek to dominate others politically, socially, and economically, and the formation of colonies by people leaving their native countries to form settlements subject to a parent nation. The Cold War was a period of conflict between the US and the Soviet Union characterized by deadly threats without direct battlefield confrontation. Terrorism is defined as the use of violence and intimidation in pursuit of political aims, and the Core-Periphery model defines underdeveloped countries by their dependence on a developed core region.

Supranationalism and Global Cooperation

A supranational organization is an organization of three or more states formed to promote shared objectives. A primary example is the European Union, an international organization of European countries formed after World War II to reduce trade barriers and increase cooperation. Within the United Nations, the Security Council consists of five permanent members—the US, UK, France, China, and the USSR—who possess veto power and promise to carry out UN decisions using their own forces.

Questions & Discussion

Question: A state with a long narrow shape? Answer: Elongated States