Gov AP exam Vocab
Adversary system - Legal system where two parties present their case to a neutral judge.
Criminal law - Laws defining crimes against society.
Civil law - Laws governing disputes between individuals.
Justiciable dispute - Legal dispute that can be resolved by the courts.
Defendant - Person accused of a crime.
Plea bargain - Agreement to plead guilty to a lesser charge to avoid trial.
Public defender system - Government-funded legal assistance for those who can’t afford it.
Original jurisdiction - Court's authority to hear a case first.
Appellate jurisdiction - Court's authority to review lower court decisions.
Precedent - Previous court
Bureaucracy - Government organization operating under standardized rules.
Bureaucrat - Career government employee.
Department - Largest government organization with a broad mission.
Independent agency - Government agency independent of the three branches.
Independent regulatory commission - Agency regulating certain sectors, with independence protected by Congress.
Government corporation - Agency functioning like a business.
Senior Executive Service - Senior government executives working closely with presidential appointees.
Spoils system - Hiring based on political loyalty.
Merit system - Hiring based on qualifications and performance.
Office of Personnel Management (OPM) - Agency managing federal employee rules.
Hatch Act - Law restricting political activity of federal employees.
Implementation - Putting laws into action through bureaucratic rules.
Administrative discretion - Authority given to bureaucracy to interpret laws.
Regulations - Formal rules to implement laws.
Rule-making process - Procedure for creating regulations.
Uncontrollable spending - Spending on entitlement programs, difficult to cut.
Entitlement programs - Government programs that provide benefits to all eligible citizens.
Indexing - Adjusting benefits to keep up with inflation.
Oversight - Review of government programs by the legislature or executive. Parliamentary system - Government where the legislature selects the prime minister.
Presidential ticket - Joint listing of president and vice president candidates.
Treaty - Formal agreement with other nations requiring Senate approval.
Executive agreement - Agreement with other nations not needing Senate approval.
Congressional-executive agreement - Agreement needing approval by both houses of Congress.
Veto - President’s rejection of a bill.
Take care clause - Requirement for the president to ensure laws are faithfully executed.
State of the Union Address - President’s annual address to Congress and the nation.
Executive orders - Presidential directives to federal agencies.
Line item veto - President’s ability to reject specific parts of a spending bill (unconstitutional).
Chief of staff - Head of the White House staff.
Executive Office of the President - Agencies assisting the president in carrying out duties.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB) - Agency overseeing federal budget and management.
Cabinet - President’s advisory group consisting of department heads.
Rally point - Public approval boost following a crisis.
Mandate - President’s claim of strong public support.
Cycle of decreasing influence - Tendency for a president’s support to decline.
Cycle of increasing effectiveness - Tendency for a president to gain skills over time.
Closed rule - Rule limiting amendments during House debate.
Open rule - Rule allowing amendments during House debate.
Hold - Senate procedure blocking bill or nomination consideration.
Filibuster - Senate tactic to delay action on a bill.
Cloture - Senate procedure to end debate and filibusters.
Senatorial courtesy - Tradition of consulting senators before presidential appointments.
Standing committee - Permanent committee focusing on specific policy areas.
Special/select committee - Committee formed for a specific purpose or investigation.
Joint committee - Committee with members from both House and Senate.
Earmarks - Special spending provisions for specific districts or projects.
Seniority rule - Assigning committee leadership to the longest-serving majority member.
Conference committee - Committee to resolve differences between House and Senate bills.
Delegate - Legislator expected to represent constituent views.
Trustee - Legislator expected to use personal judgment on votes.
Logrolling - Vote trading among legislators.
Discharge petition - Petition to force a bill out of committee for a vote.
Rider - Provision added to a bill to secure its passage or defeat.
Pocket veto - President’s veto when Congress adjourns without action.
Override - Congressional action reversing a presidential veto
Speaker - House leader chosen by the majority party.
Party caucus - Meeting of party members to choose leaders and set policies.
Majority leader - Party leader managing strategy and party cohesion.
Minority leader - Leader of the opposing party in the legislature.
Whip - Party leader coordinating with members on votes.
President pro tempore - Senate officer acting in the vice president's absence.
Constituents - Residents of a congressional district or state.
Reapportionment - Redistribution of congressional seats after each census.
Redistricting - Redrawing district boundaries based on population shifts.
Gerrymandering - Drawing district lines to favor a party, group, or incumbent.
Incumbent - Current officeholder.
Mass media - Communication forms like newspapers, TV, and online platforms.
News media - Media that focuses on news reporting.
Selective exposure - Tendency to consume media that aligns with existing beliefs.
Selected perception - Interpreting media messages according to personal views.
Horse race - Media focus on who’s ahead in the election, not the issues.
Single-member district - District where one representative is chosen.
Electoral college - System where electors vote for president and vice president.
Safe seat - Office predictably won by one party.
Coattail effect - Success of lower candidates due to a popular higher candidate.
National tide - Focus on national issues in elections.
Name recognition - Advantage incumbents have due to voter familiarity.
Interested money - Contributions aimed at influencing election outcomes.
Public opinion - Distribution of people's preferences on an issue, candidate, or institution.
Random sample - A sample where each individual has an equal chance of being chosen.
Manifest opinion - Widely shared and consciously held views.
Attentive public - Citizens who follow public affairs closely.
Voter registration - System to ensure only eligible voters can cast ballots.
Australian ballot - A secret, state-printed ballot.
General election - Election where voters choose officeholders.
Primary election - Election to select party nominees.
Presidential election - Election held to choose the president.
Midterm election - Election held halfway through a president's term.
Turnout - The percentage of eligible voters who vote.
Candidate appeal - The personal qualities of a candidate that influence voters.
Prospective issue voting - Voting based on a candidate’s future plans.
Retrospective issue voting - Voting based on past performance.
Political party - Organization seeking power by electing people to implement its policies.
Nonpartisan election - Election without party endorsements or affiliations.
Patronage - Giving government jobs to party supporters.
Caucus - Meeting to select candidates or decide party platforms.
Party convention - Gathering of party delegates to select candidates and set policies.
Direct primary - Election where voters pick party nominees.
Open primary - Primary where any voter can vote, regardless of party.
Closed primary - Primary limited to registered party members.
Crossover voting - Members of one party voting for a candidate from another party.
Proportional representation - Seats awarded based on the percentage of votes.
Winner-take-all system - The candidate with the most votes wins all the seats.
Minor party - Small political party, often built around a specific issue or candidate.
Libertarian party - Minor party advocating for limited government and individual freedoms.
Green party - Minor party focused on environmental issues and social justice.
Reform party - Party focused on government reform and fiscal responsibility.
Realigning election - Election that reshapes political party alignment.
Laissez-faire economics - Belief in minimal government interference in the economy.
Keynesian economics - Theory supporting government spending to boost the economy during downturns.
Divided government - Different parties control the presidency and Congress.
National party convention - Meeting of delegates to nominate presidential candidates.
Party registration - Declaring party affiliation when registering to vote.
Party identification - Personal connection to a political party.
Dealignment - Decline in strong party loyalty, with more independents.
Faction - The term used by the founders for political parties or interest groups.
Pluralism - The theory that multiple competing groups can limit the power of any one group.
Interest group - A group of people with common interests who try to influence government policies.
Movement - A large group of people focused on a common issue, seeking to change societal attitudes or institutions.
Open shop - A workplace where union membership is not required for employment.
Closed shop - A workplace where union membership is a condition of employment.
Free rider - Someone who benefits from an interest group's work without joining or paying.
Nongovernmental organization (NGO) - A non-profit group that works outside government to influence policy.
Collective action - How groups organize and work together to achieve goals.
Public choice - A study of how government officials and voters make decisions based on incentives.
Federal Register - A government publication listing new regulations.
Amicus curiae brief - A "friend of the court" brief submitted to present additional arguments in a case.
Lobbyist - A person hired to influence government decisions for a specific interest group.
Lobbying - The act of trying to influence government officials and policies.
Revolving door - When government workers move to jobs in industries they once regulated.
Issue network - A web of relationships among interest groups, government agencies, and Congress.
Political action committee (PAC) - A group that raises money to contribute to political campaigns.
Leadership PAC - A PAC formed by a political officeholder to support other candidates or parties.
Bundling - A practice where PACs gather multiple small donations to present as one large contribution.
Soft money - Money raised by political parties for activities not directly related to candidate campaigns (largely banned).
Quid pro quo - An exchange where something is given with the expectation of receiving something in return.
Independent expenditures - Money spent independently of a candidate, allowed in unlimited amounts.
Issue advocacy - Spending on political messages that do not explicitly support or oppose a candidate.
527 organization - Political group that can spend unlimited money on election activities, except on broadcast ads close to an election.
Hard money - Contributions limited in amount and fully disclosed
Ethnocentrism - Belief in the superiority of one's own nation or ethnic group.
Political socialization - The process by which individuals learn political beliefs and values.
Demographics - The study of population characteristics.
Political predisposition - Characteristics that influence an individual's political behavior.
Reinforcing cleavages - Divisions in society that reinforce each other, making groups more similar.
Cross-cutting cleavages - Divisions in society that create more diverse groups.
Manifest destiny - The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent.
Race - A group of people sharing similar genetic traits.
Ethnicity - A social division based on national origin, religion, or language.
Gender gap - The difference in political views or behavior between men and women.
Fundamentalists - Conservative Christians who have become politically active in recent years.
Gross domestic product (GDP) - The total value of goods and services produced in a country.
Socioeconomic status (SES) - A measure of an individual's social position based on income, education, and occupation. .
Political ideology - A consistent set of beliefs about government and politics.
Liberalism - A belief in using government to achieve equality and justice.
Conservatism - A belief in limited government and free markets.
Socialism - An economic and political system where the government owns the means of production.
Libertarianism - A belief in minimal government and maximum individual freedom.
Monopoly - When one company controls an entire industry, reducing competition.
Antitrust legislation - Laws that aim to prevent monopolies and encourage competition.
Political culture - Shared beliefs and values about how people relate to government and each other.
Social capital - The habits of discussion, compromise, and respect in a democratic society.
Natural rights - Basic rights that all humans are entitled to, also called human rights.
Democratic consensus - Broad agreement on democratic principles and values.
Popular sovereignty - The belief that power ultimately lies with the people.
American dream - The belief that anyone can achieve success through hard work and opportunity.
Capitalism - An economic system with private ownership, competitive markets, and limited government interference.
Suffrage - The right to vote.
Photo ops - Media events staged by candidates to generate positive images, often criticized for oversimplifying complex issues.
Sound bites - Short, simplified statements used by the media to convey political messages in a brief, digestible format.
Linkage institutions - Ways that individuals express their political preferences, such as political parties or interest groups.
Creative federalism - A system where federal, state, and local governments work closely together, often seen during the Great Society era.
Fiscal federalism - How the federal government distributes money through various grant programs, complicating the roles of different levels of government.
Preemption - The right of federal law to override state or local laws.
Categorical-formula grants - Federal funds given to states for specific purposes, with conditions attached, like matching funds.
Project grants - Federal funds given to states or other entities for specific projects based on applications, like research funding or employment programs.
Block grants - Federal funds given to states for specific purposes (like welfare or education) with fewer restrictions.
Direct orders - Federal regulations that must be followed under threat of legal penalties (e.g., Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972).
Cross-cutting requirements - Conditions that apply to all activities funded by federal money, such as non-discrimination in federal programs.
Crossover sanctions - Using federal money in one area to influence state policies in another area (e.g., drinking age and highway funds).
Full faith and credit clause - A part of the Constitution that requires states to recognize legal decisions and records from other states.
Extradition - The process where a state surrenders someone accused of a crime to the state where the crime occurred.
Interstate compact - Agreements between two or more states, which must be approved by Congress
Express powers - Powers specifically given to the national government in the Constitution.
Inherent powers - Powers the national government has because it is the government of a nation, especially in foreign affairs.
Commerce clause - A part of the Constitution that gives Congress the power to regulate business across state lines or involving other nations.
Federal mandate - A requirement set by the federal government that states must follow to get federal funding.
Concurrent powers - Powers shared by both the national and state governments, like taxing.
State's rights - Powers reserved for the states either by the Constitution or implied.
Federalism - A system where power is shared between a central government and state governments.
Dual federalism (layer cake federalism) - A view where the national government handles foreign policy and defense, and states handle most other matters; each level of government works separately.
Cooperative federalism - A system where all levels of government work together to provide services and solve problems.
Marble cake federalism - A system where all levels of government are involved in various programs, with less clear separation between them.
Competitive federalism - A system where different governments (national, state, local) compete for services and taxes, similar to a marketplace.
Permissive federalism - The idea that states' powers depend on the national government's permission.
"Our federalism" - A view, promoted by Reagan, that favors strong state powers and limits federal government powers.
Devolution revolution - The push to reduce the size of the federal government by giving more powers to the states.
Impeachment - A formal accusation by the legislature that leads to the removal of a public official from office.
Executive order - A directive issued by a president or governor that has the force of law
Executive privilege - The right of the president to keep certain communications private, especially for national security reasons.
Impoundment - The president's refusal to spend money that Congress has approved.
Direct primary - An election where voters choose their party's candidates.
Initiative - A process where voters can propose a law or change to the constitution by petition, and it can be voted on by the public.
Referendum - A process where laws passed by the legislature or proposed amendments are submitted to the public for a vote.
Recall - A process that allows voters to remove an official from office before their term ends.
Democracy - A government where people have the power, either directly or through elected representatives, and elections are free and frequent.
Direct democracy - A system where people directly vote on laws and leaders.
Representative democracy - A system where people vote for leaders who make laws on their behalf; also called a republic.
Constitutional democracy - A government that limits leaders' power and holds regular elections to let people voice their opinions.
Theocracy - A government led by religious leaders who say their authority comes from God.
Unitary system - A government system where power is concentrated in a central government.
Confederation - A system where independent states form a weak central government and maintain authority over themselves.
Constitutionalism - A set of rules (like checks and balances and the Bill of Rights) that ensures leaders listen to the people and are held accountable.
Statism - The belief that the nation's rights are more important than individual rights.
Popular consent - The idea that a government's power should come from the people's approval.
Majority rule - The idea that decisions are made based on what most people want.
Majority - The group that gets more than half the votes in an election.
Plurality - The group that gets the most votes, but not necessarily more than half.
Natural law - A moral law from God or nature that is higher than human-made laws.
Separation of powers - The division of government power into three branches: legislative (makes laws), executive (enforces laws), and judicial (interprets laws).
Checks and balances - A system where each branch of government can limit the powers of the others to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.
National supremacy - The idea that when state and national laws conflict, national laws take precedence.
before the Constitution replaced it.
Annapolis Convention - A meeting in 1786 to discuss trade problems, which led to the call for the Constitutional Convention.
Constitutional Convention - A meeting in 1787 where the U.S. Constitution was created.
Shays's Rebellion - A 1786-1787 revolt by farmers in Massachusetts that showed the need for a stronger national government.
The Federalist - A collection of essays supporting the Constitution, written by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison.
Bicameralism - A two-house legislature.
Virginia Plan - A proposal at the Constitutional Convention for a strong central government with a two-house legislature favoring larger states.
New Jersey Plan - A proposal at the Constitutional Convention for a single-house government where each state has equal representation.
Connecticut Compromise - An agreement at the Constitutional Convention to create a two-house legislature, with one house based on population and the other giving each state equal senators.
Enumerated powers - Powers specifically granted to Congress in the Constitution.
Necessary and proper clause - A part of the Constitution that allows Congress to make laws needed to carry out its duties, even if they aren't specifically mentioned.
Implied powers - Powers not listed in the Constitution but necessary for the government to carry out its duties.
Three-fifths compromise - An agreement that counted three out of every five slaves for tax and representation purposes.
Federalists - People who supported the Constitution and a strong central government.
Antifederalists - People who opposed the Constitution and a strong central government.
Centralists - People who prefer national government action over state or local action.
Decentralists - People who prefer state or local government action over national government action.