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10th Amendment: Powers not stated in the Constitution are reserved for the states.
Necessary and Proper Clause: Grants Congress the authority to make laws deemed necessary and proper that are not explicitly stated in the Constitution.
Supremacy Clause: Establishes that federal law overrides conflicting state laws.
Commerce Clause: Allows Congress to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among states, and with Indian tribes.

Stare Decisis/Precedent: Legal principle of determining points in litigation according to precedent.
Judicial Restraint: Philosophy wherein judges base rulings on precedents rather than personal or political considerations.
Judicial Activism: Philosophy prioritizing judges' interpretations based on personal views over strict adherence to current law.

Executive Orders: Laws issued by the President, often used to direct the operations of the executive branch without congressional approval.
- Often based on vague congressional legislation, leading to potential overreach.

Nepotism/Patronage: Hiring based on personal relationships or loyalty rather than merit, leads to a partisan government.
Gerrymandering: Manipulation of district boundaries for electoral advantage through:
- Cracking: Spreading voters across districts to dilute their influence.
- Packing: Concentrating voters of a particular type into one district to minimize their influence elsewhere.
Filibuster: A Senate procedure that allows prolonged debate to prevent a vote on legislation, requiring 60 votes to end.

Delegate Model: Representatives act according to the wishes of their constituents.
Trustee Model: Representatives make decisions based on their own judgment and conscience.
Politico Model: A mix of the delegate and trustee models, where representatives switch roles based on the context of issues.

Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review; the Supreme Court ruled the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional.
McCulloch v. Maryland: Confirmed the supremacy of federal laws over state laws and the establishment of a national bank as necessary under the Necessary and Proper Clause.
United States v. Lopez: Declared that gun possession near schools could not be regulated by Congress as it did not significantly affect interstate commerce.
Shaw v. Reno: Held that race cannot be the sole factor in redistricting, requiring strict scrutiny for racial classifications.
Baker v. Carr: Allowed federal courts to hear cases regarding gerrymandered districts violating the Equal Protection Clause.
Gibbons v. Ogden: Affirmed federal power to regulate interstate commerce.

Federalist No. 78: Advocates for an independent judiciary, highlighting its role as the weakest branch and the necessity of lifetime appointments to ensure impartiality.
Federalist No. 70: Argues for a strong, single executive to enhance accountability and effective governance.
Federalist No. 51: Describes the structure of government that provides checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful.

Brutus No. 1: Expresses concern about a strong central government leading to loss of individual and state freedoms, arguing for the dangers of the Necessary and Proper Clause and the Supremacy Clause.

Declaration of Independence: Document declaring the colonies' separation from Britain, emphasizing unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness while listing grievances against King George III.