Comparative Government Study Notes

General Tips for Studying Comparative Government

To effectively study the six countries, create a diagram or chart on a piece of paper divided into six sections, with each section for one of the countries.
Think critically about the key features, politics, and histories of each country as a means of consolidating your understanding.

Mexico

Classification: Federal Republic
Similarities with the USA: Mexico's governance shares several similarities with the United States, including its Constitution and the naming of its legislative chambers.
- Countries influenced by the US model include Mexico and Nigeria.
Historical Influence: Historical events such as the Mexican Revolution have significantly shaped Mexico's political landscape.
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI): Dominated Mexican politics until 2000 when Vicente Fox of the PAN (National Action Party) became the first non-PRI president.
Democracy Assessment:
  - Free, fair, and competitive elections exist.
  - Current limitations on civil liberties (e.g., freedom of press) cast doubt on the full classification as a liberal democracy.
  - Mexico and the UK are noted as pluralist systems, pursuing pluralism despite existing challenges in Nigeria.
Political System:
- Presidential system where the President serves as both head of government and head of state for a six-year term (known as Sahay Neo).
- This system means the President does not have to seek re-election, potentially reducing accountability to the public.
Electoral System:
- The President is elected via a first-past-the-post winner-take-all system.
- The Senate utilizes a mixed system of proportional representation and first-past-the-post.
Judiciary:
- The judiciary lacks true independence; the UK is the only country with a fully independent judiciary among those studied.
Political Parties:
  - PRI: A catch-all party; still retains significant popularity.
  - PAN: Stronger in the north; likened to the Republican Party in the US, with ties to small business and Catholic Church.
  - PRD (Party of the Democratic Revolution): Socially progressive, akin to the Democratic Party in the US.
  - Current President: Andres Manuel López Obrador (AMLO) from the MORENA party, a blend of different political ideologies.
Regional and Social Cleavages:
- Significant cleavages include North vs. South, urban vs. rural, and socio-ethnic tensions between mestizos (mixed heritage) and indigenous populations.
- The Chiapas movement sought more recognition for indigenous rights amid protest against NAFTA.
Key Issues:
- Drug cartels, ongoing corruption, and immigration patterns affecting both outgoing and incoming populations.

United Kingdom

Classification: Unitary System, Constitutional Monarchy consisting of four nations (England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland).
Political System:
- Parliamentary instead of Presidential.
- Prime Minister is not directly elected but is a member of Parliament (e.g., Theresa May).
Party Loyalty in Parliament:
- Members must reside in districts they represent, rewarding party loyalty by placing loyal members in safer districts.
House of Commons vs. House of Lords:
- The House of Commons (lower house) holds significant power compared to the non-elected House of Lords.
- House of Lords can amend bills but has limited real power.
Cleavages: Class has been historically significant; recent immigration has introduced ethnic and religious tensions.
Brexit:
- The UK's referendum on exiting the European Union raised questions about direct democracy and the sovereignty of national laws versus EU laws.
- This referendum was framed as a direct electoral call which increased political legitimacy.
Political Parties:
- Conservative Party (currently represented by Theresa May), Labour Party, and Liberal Democrats.
- Liberal Democrats advocate for proportional representation, in contrast with the first-past-the-post system leading to a two-party dominant landscape.
Austerity Measures:
- David Cameron’s austerity measures aimed at reducing state spending during economic strife.
- Critics argue these measures significantly impacted the welfare state.
Significant Prime Ministers:
- Margaret Thatcher: Known for neoliberal policies and privatizations.
- Tony Blair: Advocated for a “Third Way,” attempting to balance privatization with welfare state maintenance.

Russia

Classification: Federal Republic, asymmetric federalism.
Political History:
- Vladimir Putin has held power since 1996 with roles fluctuating between Prime Minister and President.
- Transformed the presidential term from four to six years.
Political System:
- The Federative Assembly consists of the State Duma and the Federation Council, with the Duma holding greater power.
- Recent elections feature first-past-the-post and a mixed proportional representation system with runoff elections when no candidate achieves over 50%.
Political Power:
- Putin's administration exemplifies increasing centralization of power.
- Governorships can be altered at the President's discretion, heightening federal control over regional governance.
Corruption and Media Control:
- Press freedoms are severely restricted; the landscape is marked by significant oligarchy and corruption.
Cleavages: Urban vs. rural divides, Westernization vs. traditionalism.
- Nationalism draws lines between those who value Western influence versus those who seek to maintain traditional Slavic customs.

China

Classification: Authoritarian State; Unitary Communism.
Political Structure:
- The Communist Party of China is the only dominant party. Local elections occur effectively at a grassroots level.
Human Rights Issues:
- Significant complaints regarding pollution, ethnic minority treatment (notably Tibetan and Uyghur populations).
- Allegations of concentration camps for Uyghurs amid global protests for Tibetan freedom are notable.
Political Institutions:
- The National People's Congress (NPC) has large membership but meets briefly; acts mostly as a rubber stamp.
- Real power is held in the Politburo and the Standing Committee.
Recent Political Developments:
- Removal of presidential term limits empowers Xi Jinping to continue indefinitely.
Free-Market Principles:
- Economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping allowed greater capitalist policies while maintaining control, leading to rapid economic growth.
Social Policies: The former one-child policy caused significant demographic challenges now evident in male-to-female ratios.
Censorship:
- The government maintains heavy censorship, limiting knowledge of significant events like Tiananmen Square.

Iran

Classification: Theocratic Republic, blending authoritarian and democratic elements.
Political Structure:
- Elections for President, parliament (Majlis), and the Assembly of Experts occur, but many candidates are vetted by the Guardian Council (comprised of clerics).
Supreme Leader Power:
- The Supreme Leader possesses ultimate authority and is selected through a combination of clerical oversight by the Guardian Council.
Soft Authoritarianism:
- Direct elections exist for some leaders, but the vetting process impacts the competitiveness of those elections, limiting true democratic access.
Social Issues:
- Gender inequality is prominent, with women facing systemic discrimination under Sharia law.
- Major ethnic groups like the Azeris and Kurds have differing rights.
Economics:
- Oil is nationalized, positioning Iran as a rentier state; reliance on oil revenue poses risks of economic stability.

Nigeria

Classification: Federal Republic, moving toward a liberal democracy but facing serious challenges.
Political System:
- A multi-part system with ongoing corruption, characterized as corporatist.
Nationhood Challenges:
- High rates of poverty and a varying literacy rate contribute to discussions about Nigeria being a failed state.
Ethnic Diversity:
- Major ethnic groups: Fulani (Muslim), Yoruba (predominantly Christian), and Ibo (mixed); all play significant roles in regional politics.
Elections and Governance:
- Requires that presidential candidates secure 25% of votes in two-thirds of states; ensures diverse regional support but also complicates elections.
Boko Haram Insurgency: Focused on opposing Western influence and enacting Sharia law in Nigeria’s northern states, posing severe security risks.
Resource Control:
- As a rentier state, Nigeria’s economy heavily depends on oil revenues, leading to uneven economic distribution across its regions.

Summary of Key Concepts and Terms

Liberal Democracy: A form of government that emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, competitive elections, and civil liberties.
Pluralism: A political system where multiple groups enhance the policymaking process.