Human Development - SUPA Psych
Developmental psychology = from the womb to the tomb
Human Development Study Designs
Cross-sectional: Study in which people of different ages are examined at the same time
Ex. Looking at 2, 6, and 8 year olds in 2022
Ex. Cognitive decline in schizophrenia - looked at 5 different aged cohorts
Problem - comparing different people (get more reliable results when following someone overtime)
Longitudinal: study following the same group of people over a period of time from months to many years in order to evaluate changes in those individuals
Ex. Longest longitudinal study - Harvard Study of Adult Development from 1938 to determine what is the key to a happy and healthy life
Good life is built on meaningful relationships
Examining changes in individuals overtime
Problem - takes a long time, expensive, people may drop out
Prenatal Development (progress before birth)
What the mother comes in contact with and does, can affect the baby psychologically
Nutrition, stress and emotion, substance use, maternal illness, environmental toxins
Critical periods = baby's body is very sensitive to toxins its exposed to
At all points of pregnancy brain/spinal cord is very sensitive (most important)
Motor and Social Development in Childhood
Motor Development
Cephalocaudal: motor development and growth that occurs from the head to the feet
We have control starting from the head and then the feet
Child can hold up their head before feet
Up --> down
Proximodistal: motor development and growth that occurs from the middle of the body out to the periphery
A child can hold themselves up from the core before they can write with their hands
In --> out
Developmental milestones:
Theories of Attachment: Harry Harlow Experiment
Close emotional bonds between child and primary caregiver (mother)
What is an infant's love for its mother?
Uses monkey's to explore
Trying to prove that love is an important thing that happens between parents and children
Former theory of attachment: loving behavior toward children was a problem/dangerous
Uses baby monkeys to show how babies need affection, touch, and care
Baby monkey prefers cloth mother even when wired mother provides food
Harlow was not a nice person (especially in designing unethical lab)
Designed "evil" mother to treat monkey's in horrible way
Changed the way people parent in a positive way
The way the parent responds to baby has a biological effect:
Babies Love Episode
Is the baby born to engage in social relationships?
New Still Face Experiment:
Baby's stress cortisol level is measured in saliva
Still face - baby's pick up on change and try to elicit a response from mother (cry, fuss)
Bring hands up to mouth to comfort themselves
Doesn't take long for mother and baby to repair relationship
Positive relationship with parents = lower levels of stress levels in baby during still face
Parent Style affecting Baby
How parenting styles affect baby's brain?
Babys brain scanned at infancy
Parenting style studied and observed
Hippocampus changed with parenting style
Less responsive / attentive parents = bigger hippocampus in babies (managing stress on their own, prioritizing safety and comfort over exploration)
Brain differences relate to parenting style
Theories of Attachment: John Bowlby
Attachment has a biological and evolutionary basis
Programmed evolution to make baby's endearing to adults so adults will take care of them (babies are helpless)
Why are babies so cute?
Babies have physical traits that make them cuter (soft skin, big eyes, big head, etc.)
Brain activated to urge activation and engagement toward babies with more baby schema (baby traits)
Patterns of Attachment: Mary Ainsworth
Patterns of parental style lead to patterns of attachment that carry on with baby
The "strange situation" task
Child observed in four situations: behavior of mother and baby together, baby's reaction to departure to mother, baby's reaction to mother returning, how baby responds when there is a stranger in the room
Ainsworth's Patterns of Attachment:
Due to how the parent responds to kid and baby's temper
Some babies can be more difficult, thus harder for mother to interact with that baby
SECURE ATTACHMENT
Exhibited by 70% of infants
Ideal attachment pattern
More close relationship with parent
Separation anxiety: distressed when mother leaves
Stranger anxiety: avoidant of stranger when alone, but friendly when the mother is present
Reunion behavior: positive and happy when mother returns
Other: uses the mother as a safe base to explore their environment
AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
Exhibited by 15% of infants
Separation anxiety: no sign of distress when the mother leaves
Stranger anxiety: the infant is okay with the stranger and plays normally when the stranger is present
Reunion behavior: the infant shows little interest when the mother returns
Other: the mother and stranger are able to comfort the infant equally well
ANXIOUS / AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT
Exhibited by 15% of infants
Separation Anxiety: intense distress when the mother leaves
Stranger anxiety: the infant avoids the stranger - shows fear of the stranger
Reunion behavior: the infant approaches the mother, but resists contact, may even push her away
Other: the infant cries more and explores less than the other two types
Romanian orphanages and brain development
Children neglected in orphanages (especially in Romania) has negative long-term consequences
How Every Child Can Thrive by Five
Connecting, talking, playing, healthy home, community
Serve and return
Naming games
Copy cat games
Peak-a-boo
Neglection leads to stress in baby --> playing and interaction leads child to develop trust, feel safe
Most important years for child development = first 5 years
Playing early and often
Culture and Parenting
Different nationalities affecting relationships and cultural variations of attachment
More children have secure attachment type amongst all countries
Society/culture values influences parenting
Ex. Japan values individualism and communities raising children collectively. Also streets designed make it easier (sending young kids on errands)
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development in children
Changes we see as kids get older
Thinking
Reasoning
Remembering problem solving
Jean Piaget
SENSORIMOTOR
Birth - age 2
Kids use sense and motor ability to learn about world around them
Moving around, exploring, touching toys
Object Permanence does not exist at the start of this stage, but develops before the end of this stage
Object Permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when they are not visible
PREOPERATIONAL
Ages 2 - 7
Throughout this stage, children have not yet mastered the principle of conservation
Conservation: The awareness that physical qualities remain constant despite changes in their physical appearance
Ex. Water being poured into a bigger cup and thinking there is more water
Children demonstrate centration and irreversibility, which makes mastery of conservation difficult
Centration: The tendency to focus on one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects
Ex. Considering only the height of the water (not width)
Irreversibility: the inability to visual actions being reversed
Ex. Water being poured back into original cup
They also demonstrate egocentrism throughout this stage
Ecocentrism: inability to see the world from another person's POV
Ex. Child talking about something they see over the phone (if they can see it, you can see it)
A common feature of ecocentrism is animism
Animism: the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities or intentions
They also begin to engage in symbolic play
Symbolic play: Beginnings of abstract thought
Ex. Using a remote as a car, roleplay as mom
CONCRETE OPERATIONAL
Children begin develop decentration and reversibility throughout this stage; as a result, they begin to master conservation
Decentration: focusing on more than one aspect of a problem at the same time
Reversibility: opposite of irreversibility
Ex. Visualizing water being poured back and realizing same amount
They also experience a decline in egocentrism
FORMAL OPERATIONAL
Thinking becomes more abstract
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Placed emphasis on social interaction and how that shapes a child's cognitive development
To learn we have to be presented with tasks just out of our ability range
Zone of proximal development
The range of tasks a child can complete with the help of others
Current understanding
Can work unassisted
You give a kid something they can do on their own
Zone of proximal development
Things kids can do only with help
Learns through scaffolding
Scaffolding: the help or guidance received from an adult or more competent peer to permit the child to work within the ZPD
Out of reach
Kids are not capable of doing
Some babies have innate cognitive abilities
Babies look longer when a block is suspended in mid-air
Shows understanding of gravity
Moral Development
Kohlberg's stage theory of moral development
Presented Heinz Problem (should man steal drug for his wife?)
LEVEL 1: PRECONVENTIONAL
Moral reasoning exhibited by young children
Lower level of moral reasoning
More internal
Punishment orientation: How can I avoid punishment?
Ex. Heinz shouldn't steal the drug because he might get caught and go to jail
Self-concern: what's in it for me
Ex. Heinz should steal the drug because he will be much happier if he saves his wife
LEVEL 2: CONVENTIONAL
Moral reasoning exhibited by older kids
More external - about you in society
Good girl / good boy orientation: will others approve or disapprove
Ex. What would other people think of Heinz if he let his wife die
Law and order orientation: is it against society's rules or laws
Ex. Although his wife needs the drug, Heinz should not break the law to get the drug
LEVEL 3: POSTCONVENTIONAL
Moral reasoning exhibited by adults
Less rigid and more flexible thinking
Individual rights to life
Social contract orientation: what makes for a good society?
Ex. Heinz should steal the drug because everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law
Universal ethical principles:
Ex. Heinz should steal the drug because saving a life is more fundamental value than the property rights of others
Issues with Kohlberg
Mixing of stages
People can have different levels of moral reasoning based on different scenarios
Ability to reason with these levels progresses with time
Moral judgement ≠ moral behavior
Just because you think you want to do something, doesn't mean you'll actually behave that way
Moral thinking does not lead to moral behavior
Biased sample (men)
Theories are gender biased since no girls used in his theories
Carol Gilligan vs. Lawrence Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan: assistant to Kohlberg but wanted to incorporate women in the studies
Focus more on relationships, compassion, interconnection of individuals
Kohlberg:
Focus on relationships: Kohlberg's theory tends to prioritize justice and individual rights
Cognitive vs. Emotional: Kohlberg's stages are more cognitive, reflecting the development of moral reasoning
Gilligan
Focus on relationships: Goi
Gilligan's Ethics of Care
Preconventional (self-care and survival): in this stage the goal of a woman is to survive
She is focused on individuality and making sure that her basic needs have been met
The ability to meet personal needs takes a priority over the ability to meet the person needs of others
Ex. Heinz shouldn't steal the drug because he could get caught and go to jail, which would make things worse for him. He needs to find another way to help her without putting himself at risk
Conventional (caring for others and self-sacrifice): in this stage, a woman recognizes the need to help other people and finds moral satisfaction in being able to meet those needs
Instead of focusing on her own self-survival, she is focused on helping others to survive in the best way possible
Ex. Heinz should steal the drug because his wife's life is more important than following the law. If he truly loves her he should do whatever it takes to save her; even if it means sacrificing his own safety and freedom
Postconventional (balancing care for self and others): in this stage, there is a principle of non-violence that applies to every decision that a woman makes
She does not wish to hurt herself or hurt others, looking for alternative methods to have needs met so that everyone can progress forward with their care
Ex. Heinz should try every possible legal option first, like negotiating with the pharmacist or seeking community help. If those fail, stealing might be justified because preserving life is more important than property laws, but he should also consider the consequences of his actions for both himself and his wife
The Transition of Adolescence
The teenage brain
Limbic system develops quickly, prefrontal cortex catches up
Without prefrontal cortex, teens worry less about future consequences
Teens have a reward system that is highly responsive to incentives which enables them to enhance their learning capabilities and achieve better outcomes
Teens more likely to take risks, have more energy
Marcia's identity statuses
Emerging adulthood
Back then, people wouldn't go to college and move straight into adulthood and have families
Quick transition from adolescence to adulthood
Transition period from adolescence and adulthood (age 18-30) - emerging adulthood
Age of identity exploration
Young people are deciding who they are and what they want out of work, school, and love
Age of instability
The post-high school years are marked by repeated residence changes
For most, frequent moves end as families and careers are established in the 30s
Age of self-focus
Freed of the parent - and society - directed routine of school, young people try to decide what they want to do, where they want to go, and who they want to be with - before those choices get limited by constraints of marriage, children, and a career
Age of feeling in between
Many emerging adults say they are taking responsibility for themselves, but still do not completely feel like an adult
Age of possibilities
Optimism reigns
Most emerging adults believe they have good chances of living "better than their parents did" and believe they'll find their life long soulmate
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial development
Focuses on idea of a crisis at each stage
