Interest Groups Notes
The U.S. Constitution doesn't mention interest groups.
James Madison warned about "factions" (minorities organized around issues) in Federalist No. 10.
Madison said limiting factions would hurt freedom.
He thought competition between factions was the best way to control them.
Many interest groups exist in the U.S.
They compete for members and access to decision-makers.
Some say there are too many interests, while others think some have too much power.
Madison's idea of factions fits both interest groups and political parties.
Interest Groups vs. Political Parties
Interest groups don't usually elect candidates or control the government directly, unlike political parties.
Political parties are broader and include many citizens.
Democrats and Republicans try to include large parts of the population.
Interest groups focus on specific issues like taxes or the environment.
Interest group membership is often limited to specific jobs or interests.
Interest groups can be well-known or not, like the Sierra Club or the North Carolina Gamefowl Breeders Association.
Interest groups usually have fewer members than political parties.
Influence and Competition
Political parties and interest groups work together and compete.
Interest groups often cross party lines, but some are seen as supporting one party more.
Republicans: American Conservative Union, Citizens United, National Rifle Association.
Democrats: Americans for Democratic Action, Campaign for America's Future, People for the American Way.
Parties and interest groups compete for influence.
Interest groups have more power in states where political parties are weaker.
Defining Interest Groups
Interest groups are also called special interests or pressure groups.
They try to influence government decisions and public policy.
This influence is often done by a lobbyist.
Lobbyists
A lobbyist represents the interest group to the government.
Lobbyists are paid and must register with the government.
A lobbyist's main goal is to influence policy.
Interest groups hire lobbyists, have them as employees, or use volunteers.
Lobbying Disclosure Act
The Lobbying Disclosure Act says lobbyists working for any interest group for more than 20 percent of their time must register.
Clients and lobbying firms must also register.
Campaign finance laws require groups to reveal campaign donations to candidates.
Scope of Lobbying
Lobbying happens in Washington, DC, and at the state level.
Each state has its own rules for who must register.
Definitions of lobbyists and lobbying vary by state.
A citizen contacting a lawmaker isn't usually lobbying, but an organization doing so may be.
Number of Interest Groups
There's no complete list of all interest groups in the U.S.
Estimates suggest there may be over 200,000 interests at all government levels.
The Lobbying Disclosure Act in 1995 improved understanding of registered interests in DC.
Full counts of interests registered in each state came later.
Categories of Interest Groups
Political scientists categorize interest groups in different ways.
Membership organizations: people join and pay dues.
These groups often have people with common issues.
Examples: National Rifle Association (NRA) and Brady: United Against Gun Violence.
Interest groups can also represent companies or governments.
These groups don't have individual members but are part of larger organizations.
Companies like Verizon and Coca-Cola register to lobby for their benefit.
They may have in-house lobbyists or hire contract lobbyists.
Contract lobbyists work for multiple clients.
Governments lobby to get more money or independence.
Government institutions are represented by legislative liaisons.
State universities employ lobbyists to represent their interests.
They lobby for budget and autonomy.
Universities may lobby for research funds from government departments.
Departments like Defense and Homeland Security may fund research.
Associations
Associations are groups of institutions, often in the same industry, with similar concerns.
Example: The American Beverage Association includes Coca-Cola and Red Bull.
These companies have common interests related to manufacturing and regulation.
Associations lobby for tax breaks or easier regulations for the industry.
Individual members may also have their own lobbyists.
Volunteer Lobbyists
People may volunteer to represent an organization.
They are usually not paid.
Citizens may lobby for causes they care about.
They may or may not be members of an interest group.
Lobbying Techniques
Lobbyists use different techniques to achieve their goals.
Inside lobbying: Directly taking the interest group's message to a government official.
Tactics include testifying and drafting legislation.
Lobbyists rely on contacting lawmakers and testifying.
Influencing appointments or providing favors are less common.
Outside lobbying: Getting the message to the public.
Tactics include press releases and contacting interest group members.
The Sierra Club might issue press releases or encourage members to contact representatives.
Members of Congress pay attention when many constituents contact them.
Many groups use both inside and outside tactics.
Goals of Interests
The main goal is to influence decision-makers and public policies.
National Right to Life lobbies to restrict abortion access.
NARAL Pro-Choice America lobbies to promote abortion rights.
Environmental interests lobby for laws to protect resources.
Some interests lobby to reduce regulations.
The farm lobby pressures Congress to maintain farm subsidies.
Interest Group Functions
Interest groups monitor government activity.
They help members participate in politics.
They provide information to the public and lawmakers.
The NAACP tracks voter-identification bills and contacts lawmakers.
The NRA monitors gun control laws.
Interest groups increase membership, inform the public, and organize rallies.
They organize letter-writing campaigns and stage protests.
Some interests are broad, like AARP, while others are narrow, like the Association of Black Cardiologists.
Some groups have become more specialized.
Public vs. Private Interest Groups
Interest groups represent both private and public interests.
Private interests seek benefits for a single group.
They lobby for tax exemptions or favorable laws to promote private goods.
Private goods are things individuals can own, like corporate profits.
Wealthy individuals are more likely to have private goods.
Public interest groups promote public goods.
Public goods benefit most citizens.
Examples: public safety, education, and environmental protection.
Public goods are often underfunded without government involvement.
They are generally nonexcludable.
Examples: national defense, clean air and water.
Collective Action Problems
Collective action problems happen when people don't want to take action.
This is because the benefit isn't worth the cost.
The free rider problem is when people get benefits without paying the cost.
Examples: not contributing to NPR, workers not joining unions.
Free riding can be overcome in different ways.
Some groups get financial support from outside the group.
Smaller groups have an advantage because they can agree more easily.
Group leaders offer incentives like discounts or a sense of community.
Sometimes joining an organization is required.
Disturbance Theory and Collective Action
External events can help mobilize groups.
Disturbance theory explains why groups mobilize due to events in the environment.
Example: Rachel Carson's Silent Spring led to more environmental groups.
The deaths of unarmed African American men have raised awareness of racial issues.
The death of George Floyd led to protests across the United States.
Political candidates can highlight issues, leading to group mobilization.
Debate about immigration policy has created disturbances.
Interest groups offer a way to participate in politics.
Examples: Tea Party protests, Black Lives Matter movement.
Group Participation as Civic Engagement
Joining interest groups can help people get involved in their community.
Some groups start as grassroots movements.
The Tea Party is an example of an astroturf movement, supported by wealthy sponsors.
Interest groups connect people and government.
They allow people to work on issues and influence policy.
Interest groups educate the public and frame issues.
They get issues on the government agenda and monitor programs.
They use digital means like hashtag activism.
Milestone Interest Groups as a Response to Riots
The LGBTQ movement was influenced by the gay rights movement and the Stonewall Inn riots.
The riots raised awareness of LGBTQ struggles.
The Castro district in San Francisco was also important to the LGBTQ community.
The assassination of Harvey Milk led to protests.
Advocacy groups like the Human Rights Campaign support the LGBTQ community.
A current debate is whether religious freedom allows denying services to LGBTQ members.
OSHA recommends best practices for restroom access for transgender workers.
Trends in Public Interest Group Formation and Activity
There are more interest groups now.
Some areas are dominated by certain industries.
The number of corporate interests has increased.
There are also more public interest groups.
Example: U.S. PIRG represents the public on issues like health and the environment.
PIRGs help people make a difference.
Student PIRGs focus on student issues like tuition costs.
The increase in groups reflects new interests and the shift of power to state governments.
There has been more specialization and fragmentation.
Technology has made it easier for small groups to form.
The size of the economy affects the number of interests.
Lobbying has become more professional.
There are restrictions on gifts lobbyists can give lawmakers.
How Representative Is the Interest Group System?
Participation in the U.S. has never been equal; wealth and education matter.
Wealth helps overcome problems, but poverty is a barrier.
Large corporations are more likely to participate.
Poor people may not have time to participate.
Financial barriers exist.
The poor may feel less effective and are underrepresented.
Certain racial and ethnic groups may participate less.
There is bias in interest groups as well.
Pluralist scholars believe people naturally join groups and compete.
The elite critique says businesses and the wealthy have an advantage.
Business and wealthy interests are overrepresented.
Disadvantaged interests face challenges.
A study showed that the wealthy have more influence than average citizens.
Business groups have more influence than public interest groups.
Interest group politics depend on access to decision-makers.
The iron triangle is a relationship between an interest group, a congressional committee member, and an agency.
Hugh Heclo described a more open pattern called an issue network.
Some scholars study the relationships between many groups and political actors.
Some coalitions are long-standing, while others are temporary.
Joining coalitions can dilute preferences.
Neopluralist scholars argue that some interests have an advantage, but their influence depends on the environment.
Even wealthy interests don't always win.
When interests mobilize, others often counter-mobilize.
Influence in Elections
Interest groups support candidates who agree with them.
Examples: NRA, Brady: United Against Gun Violence.
Incumbents often receive support.
Some groups form PACs to donate funds to candidates.
PACs have limits on how much they can contribute.
Super PACs can spend unlimited money but cannot donate directly to candidates.
Influencing Governmental Policy
Lawmakers rely on interest groups for information.
These voting cues help lawmakers decide how to vote.
Interest groups target lawmakers who will introduce legislation.
They target the budgetary process.
They also try to defeat legislation they don't like.
Interest groups lobby the executive branch and the judicial branch.
Effects of Interest Group lobbying
The effect of interest groups is hard to measure.
Lobbyists support lawmakers who would have supported them anyway.
Contributions buy access to lawmakers.