New Testament Foundations: Contextualization and the Four Gospels
Foundations of New Testament Missions: The Gospels as Contextualized Communication
In the study of Christian missions, the New Testament foundations are revealed not only through the explicit content of the gospels—the birth, life, death, burial, and resurrection of Jesus Christ—but also through the very manner in which these accounts were composed. Dean Fleming, in his work Contextualization in the New Testament, argues that the four Gospels are unique because they were written for distinct audiences. Each author contextualized the message of Jesus' life and mission specifically for the people they were addressing. This methodological approach demonstrates God's inherent love for the nations by ensuring the message of the Gospel was accessible and relevant across different cultural and historical landscapes.
Defining Contextualization according to Dean Fleming
To understand the Gospels as missiological tools, one must first define contextualization. Dean Fleming provides a comprehensive definition: "I take contextualization then to refer to the dynamic and comprehensive process by which the gospel is incarnated within a concrete or historical situation. This happens in such a way that the gospel both comes to authentic expression in the local context and at the same time prophetically transforms the context. Contextualization seeks to enable the people of God to live out the gospel in obedience to Christ within their own cultures and circumstances."
First, contextualization is a dynamic process. Because culture is always changing and shifting, the way the Gospel is communicated must also change. This does not mean the core content of the Gospel—the message of Jesus' life and mission—changes, but rather the communication methods must adapt to the surrounding culture. Second, it is a comprehensive process. It is more than just translating key statements; it involves asking what a "fully orbed Christian life" looks like in a specific context, whether that be for a Christian in America, India, or someone living in the 1900s versus the early 2000s.
The Metaphor of the Plant and the Soil
The process of contextualization can be understood through the metaphor of a plant and the soil it grows in. Certain types of plants can grow in various types of soil. If you take the same plant and place it in two different soils, the result might look different: one might produce different colored blossoms, or one might grow tall while the other remains short and stubby. While the soil changes the appearance of the plant, the plant itself remains the same species. In the same way, the Gospel is incarnated into a concrete historical or cultural situation. Whether it is the 1950s or the year 2000, or American culture versus Indian culture, the Gospel remains the same, but it takes root in a way that manifests as an authentic expression within that local context.
This process maintains a necessary tension. On one hand, there must be an authentic expression of faith that resonates with the local culture. On the other hand, the Gospel is not an endorsement of all cultural practices. It must prophetically transform the context, calling people to repent of certain cultural elements and be "in the world but not of it." Ultimately, contextualization answers the question: How can the people of God live in obedience to Christ within their specific culture and circumstances?
The Gospel Writers and Audience-Oriented Communication
Fleming points out that the Gospels function as "audience-oriented communication." Like many ancient writings, the purpose of the Gospels was not merely to provide objective information but to persuade readers to take specific action. The genre often presented biographical stories to move the audience toward repentance, belief, or following Jesus as the Son of God. To better understand this, the Gospels can be examined through two lenses: the intended audience (based on Fleming's research) and the understanding of mission (based on Costenberger and Alexander's Salvation to the Ends of the Earth).
The Gospel of Mark: Intercultural Roots and Persecuted Believers
The Gospel of Mark is widely considered to be the first Gospel written. It is characterized by its brevity and the frequent use of the word "immediately." Fleming argues that Mark's audience was a mix of Jews and Gentiles, pointing to its "intercultural roots." Evidence for this includes Mark's inclusion of Aramaic words that are subsequently translated for the reader and stories involving both Jewish and non-Jewish individuals. Furthermore, Mark likely wrote for a community facing persecution and suffering, as reflected in the prominent themes of his narrative. Mark often uses the disciples as literary tools to instruct, warn, or encourage his audience.
Regarding the mission in Mark, Costenberger and Alexander note that while Jesus' earthly ministry focused primarily on the Jews, a broader mission to the Gentiles is placed in a future timeframe. Mark's theological thrust is demonstrating that Jesus is the Son of God. The book begins with the declaration: "The beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." Unlike other Gospels, Mark places little emphasis on the birth narrative, focusing instead on Jesus' divine identity. This culminates at the cross, where a Gentile centurion proclaims, "Truly this man was the Son of God." Mark calls his audience to recognize and believe in this divine identity.
The Gospel of Matthew: Jewish Roots and the Universal Mandate
Matthew's Gospel was primarily contextualized for a Jewish audience. This is evident through the inclusion of numerous Jewish rituals and ceremonies mentioned without explanation, assuming the reader's prior knowledge. Matthew emphasizes Jesus' Jewishness and his status as the fulfillment of Old Testament scriptures. Most likely, the letter addressed Jewish Christians experiencing a painful transition as they saw the Gospel open to Gentiles. Matthew provides a dual reassurance: that following Jesus is the ultimate expression of their Jewish heritage, but also that God has reached a turning point where salvation is being extended horizontally to all nations.
There has been historical debate regarding the scope of Matthew's mission. Theologian Adolf von Harnack initially argued that the Great Commission () was a later addition by disciples seeking to create a world religion, as the rest of the book seemed nationalistic. However, missiologist David Hesselgrave notes that von Harnack later changed his mind, seeing the commission as a magnificent and necessary conclusion. Costenberger and Alexander see Matthew’s mission from two vantage points: the earthly mission involving the gathering of an embryonic "ecclesia" from Israel, and the mission of the exalted Jesus who commissions his followers to reach the ends of the age.
The Gospel of Luke: The Universal Scope for a Diverse Audience
Luke's Gospel is unique because the author himself was a Gentile writing to other Gentiles. His audience was socially diverse; the book is addressed to Theophilus, a man of high status or wealth, yet the content consistently focuses on the poor and the marginalized. Costenberger and Alexander, citing Senior and Stuhlmeyer, suggest that Luke provides the clearest presentation of the church's universal mission in the New Testament. While Jesus' earthly life revolved around Jews, Luke provides glimpses of the global ramifications of his ministry. Luke and Acts are a pair, showing the story of Jesus in the first volume and the advance of the church through the Holy Spirit in the second.
The Gospel of John: The Mission of the Sent One
John's Gospel differs from the Synoptics by emphasizing "eternal life" over the "Kingdom of God." It was likely written for a second-generation audience—people who had heard of Jesus but had not personally witnessed his signs or miracles (). Written for both Jewish and Gentile converts facing persecution, it encourages them to remain strong in their belief. The primary focus is the mission of Jesus as the "Sent One" who descends from and ascends back to the Father in perfect obedience.
Costenberger and Alexander highlight that Jesus' mission required him to be fully human and fully divine to accomplish what no other human could. After completing his unique mission of salvation, Jesus handed a mission to his disciples: "As the Father has sent me, I am sending you" (). While some interpret this as a mandate for purely humanitarian aid—such as feeding the hungry or healing the sick—the text suggests the disciples' mission is to extend Jesus' work through the faithful proclamation of the Gospel. Social action and ministry serve to promote the message of reconciliation so that people may know God.
Conclusion: God's Design for the Nations
The existence of four distinct Gospel accounts, written for four different audiences, serves as definitive proof that God has had a heart for the nations from the very beginning. The universal scope of the Gospel was not a later addition but was woven into the very structure of the New Testament. God loved the nations enough to fashion the biblical record in a way that specifically reached and resonated with diverse cultures, ensuring His name would be known to all peoples.