Historical and Theological Analysis of Jesuit Missions in Asia and the Advocacy of Hsu Kuang-chi

St. Francis Xavier's Mission in India ($1543$)

• Timeline and Logistics: St. Francis Xavier reflects on the progress of his mission during his third year since departing from Portugal. By May $1543$, he had written three times to the Society of Jesus in Rome, though he only received a single response dated February $1542$. This letter arrived via a vessel that wintered at Mozambique, reaching India two months prior to Xavier's current writing.
• Methods of Evangelization in Comorin: Xavier and Francis Mancias resided among the Christians of Comorin, a population growing daily. Upon arrival, Xavier found that despite identifying as Christians, the locals were ignorant of the faith due to language barriers (Castilian for Xavier versus Malabar for the locals).
  • Translation Efforts: Xavier collaborated with intelligent, multi-lingual locals to translate the Catechism into the Malabar tongue. This was described as a task of infinite difficulty and joint effort.
  • Pedagogical Techniques: Xavier used a bell to assemble villagers twice a day for instruction. Children were taught the Christian doctrine over the course of one month and were ત્યારબાદ mandated to teach their families and neighbors.
  • Ritual Practice: On Sundays, every member of the village gathered at the church. Xavier recited the Trinity's names, the Lord's Prayer, the Hail Mary, and the Creed in the native language, followed by a point-by-point profession of faith where participants crossed their hands over their breasts.
• The Ethics of Conversion and Salvation: Xavier defined a "good and true Christian" as one who faithfully observes the Ten Commandments. He taught that neglecting even a single precept would result in being cast into hell, barring true penitence.
• Impact on the Youth: Xavier reported that children showed an extraordinary zeal for the religion and a "marvellous" hatred for idolatry. These children would frequently harass their own parents for practicing idolatrous worship and lead raids to destroy idols, upsetting them, spitting on them, and breaking them to pieces.
• Medical and Administrative Duties: Xavier spent four months in one village translating and tending to the sick. When the demand for his presence at bedsides became overwhelming, he sent trusted children to recite the Creed and prayers for the sick in his stead. Administratively, he established catechists in $30$ Christian villages, funded by an annual revenue of $4,000$ gold farlams allotted by Governor Don Martin Alfonso.

Socio-Religious Critique of the Indian Brahmins

• Characterization: Xavier described the Brahmins as a perverse, wicked, and crafty set of men, labeling them as "liars and cheats to the very backbone." He accused them of manipulating the superstitious fears of the people for their own maintenance, specifically regarding temple offerings.
• Deceptive Practices: Brahmins allegedly convinced the populace that idols consumed food while the Brahmins themselves ate sumptuous meals to the sound of drums. They threatened that the gods would punish the people with disease or demons if offerings were not provided.
• Philosophical Discussion: Xavier engaged with an $80$-year-old Brahmin regarding the requirements for the afterlife. The Brahmin claimed two duties: abstaining from killing cows and showing kindness to Brahmins. Xavier countered with the Ten Commandments and the Creed. He utilized logical arguments to prove the immortality of the soul, noting that simple, non-scholastic reasoning was most effective for the local audience.
• Identity and Perception: Indians believed their gods were black, as they considered black to be the best color. Consequently, idols were depicted as black and often rubbed with oil, which Xavier noted caused a detestable smell.

Jesuit Expansion and Strategy in Asia ($1549$)

• Perspective on Indian Mission: In a $1549$ letter to St. Ignatius de Loyola, Xavier expressed skepticism about the stability of the Indian mission. He characterized the Indian race as "barbarous," citing a "vicious disposition" and an "incredible" inconstancy of mind. He believed the mission could only be sustained through continual supplies of European Jesuits.
• Geographic Distribution of Society Members:
  • Moluccas: $4$ members ($1,000+$ leagues from Goa).
  • Malacca: $2$ members ($500$ leagues from Goa).
  • Comorin Promontory: $6$ members ($200$ leagues from Goa).
  • Coulan: $2$ members ($120$ leagues from Goa).
  • Bazain: $2$ members ($60$ leagues from Goa).
  • Socotra: $4$ members ($300$ leagues from Goa).
• Portuguese Limitations: Xavier noted the Portuguese only controlled the sea and coastal towns. On the mainland, the addiction to vice among natives made conversion difficult. He highlighted that the mistreatment and disdain for new converts by the Portuguese deterred others from joining the faith.

Xavier's Mission and observations in Japan ($1551$-$1552$)

• Initial Success at Cagoxima: Arriving August $15$, $1549$, Xavier was received by the relations of a convert named Paul. More than $100$ people converted initially, but bonzes eventually convinced the local prince to issue an edict forbidding Christianity under the penalty of death.
• Cultural Traits of the Japanese: Xavier described the Japanese as an ambitious, warlike people who prized military glory and weapons above all else. They were characterized as polite to one another but contemptuous of foreigners. Despite living in wooden houses (Yamaguchi had $10,000$ households), they valued arms adorned with gold and silver and slept with swords at their heads.
• Scientific and Theological Engagement: Xavier introduced Western concepts such as the creation of the universe and the spherical nature of the earth. He used explanations of comets, lightning, and rain to gain standing as a learned person, which facilitated religious conversion. Many Japanese were troubled by the idea that their ancestors were in hell because God had not revealed the faith to them sooner; Xavier addressed this by arguing that natural law (innate moral knowledge) exists independently of external instruction.
• The Problem of the Bonzes: Xavier heavily criticized the bonzes, specifically "grey" and "black" monks. He accused them of selling "notes" or securities to be buried with the dead, promising that alms given now would return tenfold interest in the next life.
• Kyoto and Regional Conflict: Xavier traveled to Kyoto, which once held $180,000$ dwellings but had been reduced to roughly $100,000$ due to war. He found the city too unstable for preaching.
• China as the Ultimate Goal: Recognizing the Japanese respect for Chinese wisdom (specifically the University of Bandou's reliance on Chinese characters and precepts), Xavier concluded that converting China was the key. He hypothesized that if China accepted the faith, the Japanese would follow.

The Memorial of Hsu Kuang-chi ($1617$)

• Defense of the Jesuits: Hsu Kuang-chi (baptized "Paul"), a high-ranking magistrate and Chancellor of the National Institute, wrote a memorial to the Emperor defending the Jesuits (including Matteo Ricci and Pantoja) against the Board of Rites. He praised their scientific accuracy, strict personal discipline, and moral rectitude.
• Comparative Religion: Hsu argued that Jesuit teachings could "repair and augment" the Royal Institutes and correct the errors of Buddhism and Taoism. He claimed that the $30+$ nations of Europe lived in such harmony and virtue due to this religion that they did not need guarded boundaries or locks on their doors.
• Three Modes of Examination Proposed:
  1. Translation Review: Jesuits and Chinese ministers should jointly translate Western works on theology, philosophy, and science for general assembly review.
  2. Religious Debate: Jesuits should engage in direct debate with the most notable Buddhist and Taoist leaders, with literati acting as judges.
  3. Compendium Review: Jesuits should provide a detailed compendium of their faith, alongside $30$ translated and $10$ original volumes, for Imperial inspection.
• Three Modes of Surveillance Proposed:
  1. Financial Control: Replace European/merchant funding with a state-monitored stipend to prevent suspicions of gold-making or foreign influence.
  2. Community Bonds: Allow Jesuits to reside where they choose, provided that local families (in groups of $10$ or $20$) give security bonds for their behavior.
  3. Registration: Establish stamped registers and biennial reports to government offices, with a general examination every $3$ years.

Biography and Scientific Legacy of Hsu Kuang-chi

• Conversion and Career: Met Matteo Ricci in $1600$ and was baptized in $1603$. He reached the highest level of civil exams in $1604$ and joined the Hanlin Academy. He collaborated on math, geography, and astronomy texts, including The Principles of Calculus.
• Scientific Achievement: In $1629$, after the local bureau failed to predict an eclipse, Emperor Chong Zhen tasked Hsu with revising the calendar. Hsu was assisted by Johann Terrenz, Giacomo Rho, and Johann Adam Schall von Bell.
• Intellectual Contributions: Authored the Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. He is buried in Xujiahui, Shanghai. In $1983$, $350$ years after his death, the Guangqi Garden and a marble statue were established in his honor.