Midterm 2

Tissues

1. Four Primary Tissue Classes and Their Subclasses:

   • Epithelial Tissue:

     • Subclasses: Simple epithelium (e.g., simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar), Stratified epithelium (e.g., stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal), and Pseudostratified epithelium.

   • Connective Tissue:

     • Subclasses: Loose connective tissue (e.g., areolar, adipose), Dense connective tissue (e.g., dense regular, dense irregular), Cartilage (e.g., hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage), Bone, Blood.

   • Muscle Tissue:

     • Subclasses: Skeletal muscle, Cardiac muscle, Smooth muscle.

   • Nervous Tissue:

     • Subclasses: Neurons, Neuroglia.

2. General Features of Each Class:

   • Epithelial: Covers body surfaces, lines hollow organs, forms glands; functions in protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration.

   • Connective: Supports, binds, and protects organs; stores energy as fat; provides immunity.

   • Muscle: Responsible for movement, posture, and heat production.

   • Nervous: Detects changes in a variety of conditions inside and outside the body and responds by generating nerve impulses.

3. Healing Processes:

   • Inflammation: Initial response to injury, characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.

   • Organization: Formation of granulation tissue, which restores the blood supply.

   • Regeneration/Fibrosis: Replacement of destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue or fibrous connective tissue (scar tissue).

4. Regenerative Abilities:

   • Epithelial and Bone Tissue: High regenerative capacity.

   • Smooth Muscle and Dense Regular Connective Tissue: Moderate regenerative capacity.

   • Skeletal Muscle and Cartilage: Limited regenerative capacity.

   • Cardiac Muscle and Nervous Tissue: Poor regenerative capacity.

5. Factors Affecting Tissue Repair:

   • Nutrition: Vitamins (e.g., Vitamin C for collagen synthesis), proteins.

   • Blood Supply: Adequate blood supply is crucial for healing.

   • Age: Younger individuals heal faster than older individuals.

   • Overall Health: Conditions like diabetes can impair healing.

Skin

5. Functions of Skin:

   • Protection, regulation of body temperature, sensory reception, synthesis of Vitamin D, excretion of wastes.

6. Layers of Skin:

   • Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium.

   • Dermis: Dense irregular connective tissue, areolar tissue.

   • Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): Adipose tissue.

7. Thermoregulation:

   • Sweat glands: Evaporative cooling.

   • Blood vessels: Vasodilation and vasoconstriction to control heat loss.

8. Aging and Skin:

   • Thinning of the epidermis and dermis, decreased collagen and elastin, reduced activity of sebaceous and sweat glands.

9. Types of Burns:

   • First-degree: Affects the epidermis, causes redness and pain.

   • Second-degree: Affects the epidermis and part of the dermis, causes blistering.

   • Third-degree: Affects the full thickness of the skin, destroys nerve endings, requires grafting.

10. Rule of Nines:

    • A method to estimate the percentage of body surface area affected by burns.

11. Blister Formation:

    • Separation between the epidermis and dermis.

12. Skin Diseases:

    • Examples include acne, psoriasis, eczema, skin cancer (melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma).

13. Epidermal Derivatives:

    • Hair, nails, glands (sebaceous, sweat).

14. Skin Color and Health:

    • Jaundice (yellow), cyanosis (blue), erythema (redness), pallor (paleness).

Skeletal System

15. Functions of the Skeletal System:

    • Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, energy storage.

16. Classification of Bones by Shape:

    • Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid.

17. General Features of a Long Bone:

    • Diaphysis, epiphyses, metaphyses, medullary cavity, periosteum, endosteum.

18. Principal Cell Types in Osseous Tissue:

    • Osteoblasts (build bone), osteocytes (maintain bone), osteoclasts (break down bone).

19. Spongy vs. Compact Bone:

    • Spongy: Light, porous, contains trabeculae.

    • Compact: Dense, forms the outer layer of bones.

20. Hematopoiesis:

    • The production of blood cells, occurring in the red marrow.

21. Bone Formation:

    • Intramembranous Ossification: Formation of flat bones.

    • Endochondral Ossification: Formation of long bones from cartilage.

22. Bone Maintenance:

    • Bone remodeling through resorption and deposition.

23. Nutrition and Bone Maintenance:

    • Calcium, Vitamin D, protein are crucial for bone health.

24. Hormones and Bone Maintenance:

    • Parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, growth hormone, sex hormones.

25. Bone Disorders:

    • Osteoporosis, rickets, osteomalacia.

26. Fracture Types:

    • Simple, compound, comminuted, greenstick, spiral.

27. Fracture Repair:

    • Hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus formation, bony callus formation, bone remodeling.

28. Skeletal Abnormalities:

    • Microcephaly, hydrocephaly, cleft palate, spina bifida, lordosis, kyphosis, scoliosis, herniated disc.

29. Appendicular vs. Axial Skeleton:

    • Appendicular: Limbs and girdles.

    • Axial: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

30. Parts of a Vertebra and Regions:

    • Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal.

31. Bones and Articulations:

    • Examples include femur, tibia, humerus, scapula, etc.

32. Types of Joints:

    • Cartilaginous: Intervertebral discs.

    • Fibrous: Sutures of the skull.

    • Synovial: Shoulder, knee.

33. Knee Joint Features:

    • Ligaments, menisci, synovial fluid.

34. Joint Movements:

    • Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

35. Limitations to Movements:

    • Determined by joint structure, ligaments, muscles, and tendons.

36. Joint Disorders:

    • Arthritis, bursitis, tendinitis.

37. Structures:

    • Tendons: Connect muscle to bone.

    • Ligaments: Connect bone to bone.

    • Bursae: Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction.

    • Tendon Sheaths: Surround tendons to reduce friction

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