PSY 101 - EXAM 1
Chapter 1 – Introduction to Psychology
Psychology - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including thoughts, emotions, and actions.
Behavior - Any observable action performed by a living organism, including speech, movement, and social interactions.
Mental Processes - Internal experiences such as thinking, feeling, and perceiving that cannot be directly observed.
Wilhelm Wundt - Known as the "father of psychology," he established the first psychology lab and developed structuralism, focusing on analyzing conscious experience through introspection.
Structuralism - A psychological approach that aimed to break down mental experiences into their basic components using introspection.
William James - An American psychologist who founded functionalism, emphasizing how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment.
Functionalism - A psychological perspective that examines the purpose of mental and behavioral processes and how they aid survival and adaptation.
Marginalized Psychologists - Pioneers in psychology from underrepresented backgrounds, such as women and minorities, who made significant contributions despite societal barriers.
Mamie Phipps Clark: The first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology in the United States; her research on racial identity and the doll experiments contributed significantly to the understanding of race and discrimination in children.
Major Perspectives in Psychology - Theoretical approaches including behavioral (learning-based), cognitive (thought-focused), biological (brain and genetics), humanistic (personal growth), psychodynamic (unconscious influences), and sociocultural (social and cultural effects).
Careers in Psychology - There are various career paths available in psychology, including clinical psychologist, counseling psychologist, school psychologist, industrial-organizational psychologist, and research psychologist, each requiring different levels of education and specialization.
Chapter 2 – Psychological Research
Psychological Science - The application of scientific methods to study thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to ensure reliability and accuracy.
Theory - A well-supported explanation of psychological phenomena that organizes observations and predicts future behaviors.
Hypothesis - A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory, which can be confirmed or refuted through research.
Research Process - The systematic approach to scientific inquiry, including forming a question, developing a hypothesis, testing it, analyzing data, and drawing conclusions.
Empirical Questions - Questions that can be answered through measurable observation and experimentation rather than personal opinions or speculation.
Objectivity in Research - The principle that psychological studies should be free from personal bias and based solely on observable and measurable data.
Conceptual Variable - The general idea or abstract concept a researcher aims to study (e.g., intelligence, happiness, aggression).
Operational Definition - A specific way a conceptual variable is measured or manipulated in research (e.g., defining intelligence by an IQ test score).
Descriptive Research - Research methods that describe behaviors without determining cause-and-effect, including case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys.
Case Study - An in-depth analysis of a single person or small group, often used for rare conditions or unique circumstances.
Naturalistic Observation - Studying behavior in its natural environment without interference from the researcher.
Survey - A research method that collects self-reported data from participants through questionnaires or interviews.
Correlational Research - A method that examines the relationship between two variables to determine if they are associated.
Correlation Coefficient - A numerical value (-1 to +1) that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
Scatterplot - A graph that visually represents the correlation between two variables.
Correlation ≠ Causation - The principle that just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.
Experimental Research - A method where researchers manipulate an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable while controlling for other factors.
Independent Variable (IV) - The factor that is deliberately changed or manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV) - The outcome or response measured to see if it is affected by the independent variable.
Control Variable (CV) - Variables that are kept constant to ensure they do not influence the results.
Random Assignment - The process of placing participants into experimental or control groups randomly to reduce bias.
Replication Crisis - The issue in psychology where many studies fail to produce the same results when repeated, questioning the reliability of previous findings.
Statistical Significance - A measure of whether research results are likely due to chance, often represented by a p-value (typically p < 0.05).
Null Hypothesis - The assumption that there is no effect or difference between variables until proven otherwise.
Alternative Hypothesis - The assumption that there is a real effect or difference between variables.
File Drawer Problem - The tendency for studies with significant results to be published while studies with non-significant results remain unpublished.
Research Ethics - Guidelines ensuring research is conducted safely and ethically, protecting participants from harm.
Institutional Review Board (IRB) - A committee that evaluates research studies to ensure ethical standards are met.
Informed Consent - Participants must be fully informed about a study before agreeing to take part.
Deception in Research - Sometimes used to prevent bias, but must be justified and followed by a debriefing.
Protection from Harm - Ensuring participants are not physically or psychologically harmed during a study.
Confidentiality - Ensuring personal data and responses of participants remain private.
Debriefing - Informing participants of a study’s true purpose after its completion.
Chapter 3 – Biopsychology
Neuroscience - The study of the nervous system, including the brain, neurons, and neurotransmitters.
Nervous System - The network of nerve cells that transmits signals between the body and brain.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - The nerves outside the brain and spinal cord, responsible for sensory and motor functions.
Somatic Nervous System - The part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movements.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - The part of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate and digestion.
Sympathetic Nervous System - Activates the body's fight-or-flight response, increasing heart rate and energy.
Parasympathetic Nervous System - Calms the body after stress, conserving energy.
Central Nervous System (CNS) - The brain and spinal cord, which process information and coordinate responses.
Neurons - Nerve cells that send and receive signals in the body.
Sensory (Afferent) Neurons - Carry information from sensory receptors to the brain.
Motor (Efferent) Neurons - Send signals from the brain to muscles and glands.
Glial Cells - Support and protect neurons, assisting in communication.
Dendrites - Branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons.
Axon - A long fiber that transmits signals away from the neuron’s body.
Myelin Sheath - A fatty coating that insulates axons, speeding up signal transmission.
Neurotransmitters - Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons (e.g., dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine).
Brainstem - The oldest part of the brain, controlling vital functions like breathing and heartbeat.
Medulla - Regulates breathing, heart rate, and reflexes.
Thalamus - The brain's relay center for sensory information.
Cerebellum - Coordinates movement, balance, and fine motor skills.
Limbic System - A group of brain structures involved in emotion and memory.
Hippocampus - Essential for forming new memories.
Amygdala - Involved in processing emotions, especially fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus - Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormones.
Cerebral Cortex - The brain’s outer layer responsible for higher-order thinking.
Occipital Lobe - Processes visual information.
Temporal Lobe - Processes auditory information and language.
Wernicke’s Area - Involved in understanding language.
Broca’s Area - Controls speech production.
Parietal Lobe - Processes sensory information such as touch and spatial awareness.
Somatosensory Cortex - Processes touch and bodily sensations.
Motor Cortex - Controls voluntary movements.
Endocrine System - The body’s hormone-regulating system.
Brain Plasticity - The brain’s ability to change and adapt with experience.
Biopsychosocial Model - The interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors in shaping behavior and mental health.