Comprehensive Study Guide: From the Interwar Period to the Fall of the Soviet Union

The Interwar Period and the Rise of the Soviet Union

• Joseph Solomon and the Great Terror     * Joseph Solomon is identified as the leader who organizes the "dead terror" (also referred to as the Great Terror) to eliminate his political enemies and any existing opposition.     * His leadership is fundamentally characterized by the implementation of "five year plans."     * These plans were large-scale attempts at modernizing and industrializing the Soviet Union.     * According to the record, Solomon claimed the first five-year plan was achieved in only $4$ years, effectively "speed running" the country's industrialization.

• Identity Formation and Art     * During this reign, a specific art style emerged known as "Soviet realism" or "socialist realism."     * The primary preoccupation of this movement was the psychological and cultural transformation of identity, specifically the goal of "turning Russians into Soviets."

Characteristics and Origins of Fascism

• Historical Context     * Fascism is defined specifically as a consequence and product of World War I ($WWI$).     * This distinguishes it from communism, which possesses a longer historical lineage dating back to the nineteenth century.     * Fascism emerged directly from the specific post-war conditions in Germany, Italy, and Poland.     * Key study materials for this topic include the "Wissling Me one fascism reading" and the "Nazi party program reading."

• Fascist Leaders and Paramilitary Groups     * Benito Mussolini: Leader of fascist Italy. He utilized a group known as the "black shirts," which transitioned from a street gang into a formal political movement.     * Adolf Hitler: Leader of Nazi Germany. His associated paramilitary group was the "brown shirts."

• The "Stab in the Back" Myth     * Under Hitler, the "stab in the back" myth was popularized.     * This was the conspiratorial belief that Germany's downfall and loss in $WWI$ were caused by internal sabotage from Jewish people and other internal forces rather than military defeat.

• Hitler’s Rise to Power     * Failed Coup: Hitler attempted a failed coup, after which he was imprisoned.     * Mein Kampf: While in jail, he wrote his biography/manifesto titled "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), in which he blamed Jewish people for the woes of Germany.     * Reichstag Fire: Following his release, the Reichstag fire occurred—an event where a communist allegedly attempted to burn down the main German governmental building. Hitler used this event as a catalyst to seize and consolidate absolute power.

• The Spanish Civil War     * Francisco Franco: Orchestrated the Spanish Civil War, which was a conflict between Franco's Nationalists and the Republicans.     * Vernica: During the war, Franco oversaw the bombing of civilians, most notably in the town of Vernica.     * Cultural Connection: The bombing was famously depicted by Pablo Picasso in a painting of the same name.

World War II: Ideology and Key Events

• The Weimar Republic     * The German government established after $WWI$ was the Weimar Republic.     * The perceived failures of the Weimar Republic are credited with ushering in the rise of Adolf Hitler.

• Nazi Ideology and Expansion     * Leibensweil: A key Nazi ideology meaning "living space." This was the drive to create an expansive empire for ethnic Germans, which explicitly excluded others, such as Jewish people.     * Rhineland: Germany was forced to demilitarize this buffer zone between France and Germany after $WWI$.     * Anschluss: The annexation of Austria, which was supported by many Austrians.     * Sudetenland: Hitler attempted a similar annexation in the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia.

• Policy of Appeasement     * Neville Chamberlain: The British Prime Minister on the eve of World War II.     * Appeasement Strategy: Chamberlain granted Hitler the Sudetenland in exchange for a promise not to start a war.     * The Munich Agreement: Upon returning from Munich, Chamberlain famously declared he had achieved "peace in our time."     * Leadership Change: After the failure of the appeasement policy, Winston Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister.

• Military Alliances and Pacts     * Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: A non-aggression pact between the Nazi regime and the Soviet Union. The pact ultimately failed, leading the Soviet Union to join the Allied powers.     * Allied Powers: Included Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States (joining after $1941$).     * Axis Powers: Included Germany, Italy, and Japan.

• The Home Front and Propaganda     * Blitz Spirit: A British concept of collective resilience and unity during the war.     * "All Hands": A propaganda film that warned civilians against "anti-gossip" or "idle talk," emphasizing the danger of sharing information that could be overheard by enemies (e.g., a waitress overhearing a couple in the back of a restaurant).

The Holocaust and State-Induced Violence

• Legal Persecution     * Nuremberg Laws: These laws forbade intermarriage between Germans and Jews and legally classified Jewishness as a "race" rather than a religion.

• Escalation of Violence     * Kristallnacht: A night of state-sponsored violence involving the vandalism and destruction of Jewish homes and businesses.     * Concentration Camps: Initially used for political prisoners, these were eventually used to house Jews, Roma, and other "enemies of the Nazi state."     * Death Camps: Emerged following the concentration camp system for the purpose of mass execution.     * Zyklon B: A cyanide-based pesticide used as the primary killing agent in the camps.

• The Final Phase and Justice     * The Conference: At a specific conference during the war, German leaders recognized they were losing and decided to accelerate the killing of as many individuals as possible in the remaining time.     * Nuremberg Trials: Following the war, high-ranking Nazi leaders were tried for their crimes; many were subsequently executed.

The Cold War: A Divided World

• Partition of Germany     * Germany was split into East and West. East Germany was known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR).     * Berlin Wall: Constructed in the early $1960s$ to separate East and West Germany and prevent citizens from leaving the GDR.

• Geopolitics and Alliances     * Truman Doctrine: A policy of "containment" aimed at stopping the global spread of communism.     * NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a mutual defensive alliance.     * Warsaw Pact: The Soviet Union's defensive alliance response to NATO.     * Iron Curtain: A term coined by Winston Churchill to describe the division of Europe into the communist East and the capitalist/democratic West.

• Economic and Cultural Dynamics     * Marshall Plan: United States financial aid provided to Western Europe, leading to an "economic miracle."     * Hostology: A term for "nostalgia for the Soviet past," particularly among those disappointed by life after the fall of the Berlin Wall.

• Conflict and Competition     * Proxy Wars: The US and USSR fought indirectly through conflicts in Korea and Vietnam.     * "Almost" Moments: Situations where the Cold War nearly became "hot," including the Congo crisis and the U2 spy plane incident.     * The Space Race: Highlighted by the launch of the Sputnik satellite.     * Miracle on Ice: A moment of cultural/athletic competition at the $1980$ Olympics where the US hockey team defeated the USSR.

Global Decolonization and Conflict

• India and Pakistan: The partition occurred in $1947$. It was described as "messy," leading to lingering tensions between the two nations.
• France: Charles de Gaulle served as the President of the French Fifth Republic and was a key figure during the Algerian emergency.
• Suez Crisis ($1956$): Ended with Egypt gaining control of the canal; the event was considered an embarrassment for Britain and France.
• Kenyan Emergency (Mau Mau Uprising): Characterized by high levels of British violence. While the Mau Mau killed $36$ settlers, the British executed $1,100$ individuals and interned many others in concentration camps.

The Decline of the Soviet Union

• Soviet Leadership Succession     * Khrushchev: Denounced Stalin in his "secret speech," initiating the process of "de-Stalinization."     * Brezhnev: Described as more conservative than Khrushchev.     * Gorbachev: The final leader of the Soviet Union.

• Gorbachev’s Reforms     * Glasnost: Meaning "openness," this policy involved the relaxation of censorship.     * Karistroika (Perestroika): Meaning "restructuring." This was an attempt to restructure the government and transition from a dictatorship toward a social democracy. The goal was to make life within the Soviet system good enough that people would "want to vote for socialism."

• The End of the Eastern Bloc     * Poland: The Solidarity Movement, led by the dock worker Lev Boenza, chipped away at the Eastern Bloc and contributed to the end of Soviet rule in Poland by $1990$.     * East Germany: President Erich Conacher was a communist hardliner who opposed Gorbachev’s reforms and wanted to execute protesters. His approach contributed to the eventual collapse of the GDR.     * Czechoslovakia: The "Velvet Revolution" resulted in a peaceful transition from communism, named for its "easy" or non-violent nature.

Questions & Discussion

• Question: Who were the targets of the Nuremberg Laws?     * Answer: The primary targets were Jewish people. The laws forbade intermarriage and reclassified Jewishness as a race.
• Question: What does the film "All Hands" warn against?     * Answer: It warns against anti-gossip or idle talk (sharing information), illustrated by a waitress overhearing a couple.
• Question: What was discussed at the conference (referring to the late-war meeting)?     * Answer: The Germans recognized they were losing and discussed killing as many Jews as possible in the remaining time.
• Question: What were the examples of proxy wars?     * Answer: Vietnam and Korea.
• Question: What was the Velvet Revolution and why was it called that?     * Answer: It was the transition in Czechoslovakia; it was called "Velvet" because it was an "easy" or non-violent way of transitioning.
• Question: What is Karistroika (Perestroika)?     * Answer: It is a restructuring policy by Gorbachev. He wanted to transition toward social democracy, believing that if life was improved, people would voluntarily choose communism. Ultimately, this did not work.