Reconstruction notes

  • 1865 (April 15): Andrew Johnson becomes President after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln.

  • 1865 (Spring): Confederate armies surrender. Southern leaders and soldiers are arrested or placed under military supervision. The federal government begins to force Southern states to accept emancipation and equal rights for African Americans.

  • 1865 (Spring): Former enslaved people on Edisto Island, South Carolina, petition President Andrew Johnson regarding the restoration of land to former slaveholders.

  • 1865 (May): Andrew Johnson outlines his plan for Presidential Reconstruction, issuing pardons to many former Confederates and allowing Southern states to hold conventions and elect governments with little federal oversight.

  • 1865 (Late 1865): Southern state governments begin passing "Black Codes" to regulate the lives of African Americans and effectively maintain a system of forced labor.

  • 1865 (December): Many former rebel states ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, but some do so with declarations that emancipation was void or illegal. Some states, like South Carolina, explicitly reserve the right to secession.

  • 1866 (February): Congress passes a bill extending the life and expanding the power of the Freedmen's Bureau, but President Johnson vetoes it.

  • 1866 (March): Congress passes the Civil Rights Bill, defining national citizenship and prohibiting states from abridging the rights of citizens based on race. President Johnson vetoes the bill, but Congress overrides the veto.

  • 1866 (June): Congress approves the Fourteenth Amendment, defining national citizenship and guaranteeing equal protection under the law, but it is rejected by all Southern states except Tennessee.

  • 1866 (November): Republicans gain an overwhelming majority in Congress in the midterm elections, viewing Johnson's policies as a failure and pushing for Radical Reconstruction.

  • 1867 (March 2): Congress passes the Reconstruction Acts over Johnson's vetoes, dividing the South into five military districts and calling for the creation of new state governments that include black suffrage. This marks the beginning of Radical Reconstruction.

  • 1867-1871: The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and other white supremacist groups carry out widespread violence, intimidation, and murder against African Americans and white Republicans in the South.

  • 1868 (February): President Andrew Johnson dismisses Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, defying the Tenure of Office Act.

  • 1868 (February): The House of Representatives votes to impeach President Andrew Johnson.

  • 1868 (Spring): President Andrew Johnson faces an impeachment trial in the Senate. Senator Lyman Trumbull argues against impeachment based on insufficient cause. Johnson is acquitted by one vote (35-19, one vote short of the required 36 for conviction).

  • 1868 (June): The Fourteenth Amendment is ratified, becoming part of the Constitution.

  • 1868 (November): Ulysses S. Grant wins the presidency, supported by the Republican Party.

  • 1869 (February): Congress approves the Fifteenth Amendment, prohibiting states from denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

  • 1868-1870: Many former Confederate states are readmitted to the Union after ratifying the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and establishing new constitutions that grant black suffrage.

  • 1870 (March 30): The Fifteenth Amendment is ratified.

  • 1871 (April 20): Congress passes the Ku Klux Klan Act, authorizing federal action against terrorist organizations like the KKK.

  • 1872 (Late): Many states that had granted black suffrage during Reconstruction begin to implement disfranchisement tactics.

  • 1873: A financial panic leads to an economic depression, contributing to a decline in public support for Reconstruction policies.

  • 1874: Democrats gain control of the House of Representatives for the first time since before the Civil War.

  • 1876 (November): The disputed presidential election takes place between Republican Rutherford B. Hayes and Democrat Samuel J. Tilden. The outcome of the election in several Southern states is contested.

  • 1877 (February): Negotiations take place between Republicans and Southern Democrats regarding the contested election results.

  • 1877 (February 26): Representatives of Rutherford B. Hayes and Southern Democrats meet at the Wormley House in Washington, D.C., to negotiate a resolution to the election crisis.

  • 1877 (March): Rutherford B. Hayes is declared the winner of the presidential election. Federal troops are ordered removed from the remaining Southern states under military occupation (South Carolina and Louisiana), effectively ending Reconstruction. Southern Democrats regain control of state governments, beginning the "Redemption" period.

  • 1881: Former President Jefferson Davis publishes "The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government," arguing that the war was about states' rights and not slavery.

  • 1882: A sharecropping contract outlines the harsh conditions faced by sharecroppers, demonstrating the economic limitations and dependence they experienced after emancipation.

  • Late 1880s: The myth of the "Lost Cause" solidifies in the South, portraying the Confederacy's effort as noble and based on states' rights, while downplaying or ignoring the role of slavery and racism.

Briefing Document: Post-Civil War South and Reconstruction

Date: October 26, 2023

Subject: Review of Key Themes and Concepts in Post-Civil War Southern Society and the Reconstruction Era

Executive Summary:

This briefing document synthesizes information from various sources to provide an overview of the complex social, economic, and political landscape of the American South following the Civil War and during the Reconstruction period. Key themes include the economic challenges faced by both freed people and landowners, the emergence and impact of sharecropping, the varying definitions of "freedom," the political struggles surrounding Reconstruction and the impeachment of President Andrew Johnson, the rise of violent opposition groups like the Ku Klux Klan, the development and perpetuation of the "Lost Cause" myth, and the eventual overthrow of Reconstruction.

Key Themes and Important Ideas:

1. Economic Realities: The Rise of Sharecropping and Debt:

  • Sharecropping as a Post-Slavery Labor System: The abolition of slavery necessitated a new labor system for Southern agriculture. Sharecropping emerged as the dominant arrangement, where landowners provided land, tools, and seed to workers (freed African Americans and poor whites) in exchange for a share of the harvested crop. The textbook excerpt from "Life After Emancipation in the South" defines sharecropping: "In the system of sharecropping, landowners divided their land and gave each worker - either freed African-American or poor white - a few acres along with seed and tools. When crops were harvested, each worker gave a share of his crop, usually half, to the landowner."

  • Restrictive Contracts and Indebtedness: The "1882 Sharecropping Contract" provides a clear example of the highly unfavorable terms imposed on sharecroppers. The contract stipulated that sharecroppers would receive half of the crops only if specific conditions were met, otherwise receiving only two-fifths. These conditions included mandatory labor on fences and hauling logs, restrictions on planting cotton on home patches, and limitations on working off the plantation. Crucially, the contract states, "Nothing can be sold from their (sharecroppers’) crops until my rent is all paid, and all amounts they owe me are paid in full." This created a cycle of debt, where sharecroppers were often unable to pay off their obligations to the landowner and remained tied to the land. The source "THE MEANING OF FREEDOM.pdf" also notes the burden of debt under sharecropping, stating, "caught in the sharecropping and crop-lien systems. A far higher percentage of black and white farmers in the cotton rind (belt) labored rather than owned it."

  • Economic Hardship for Landowners: While the contracts favored landowners, the Southern economy itself was devastated by the war. "THE MEANING OF FREEDOM.pdf" highlights the economic decline of the Southern masters, noting the "widespread devastation" and the loss of "thousands of millions of dollars" in slave property. The value of land also significantly decreased.

2. Defining "Freedom": Differing Perspectives:

  • Freed People's Vision of Freedom: For formerly enslaved African Americans, freedom meant more than just the absence of bondage. "THE MEANING OF FREEDOM.pdf" details their understanding of freedom as encompassing "self-ownership, family stability, religious liberty, political participation, and economic autonomy." This included the ability to travel, reunite with family, establish schools and churches, and participate in the political process. The interview with Robert Carter in "Life After Emancipation in the South," while recollected years later, offers a glimpse into the immediate aftermath of emancipation, with his grandmother telling the slaves they were free and could leave, but offering the option to stay and be paid.

  • Masters' Vision of Freedom and Resistance to Change: The former slaveholders struggled to accept the full implications of emancipation. "THE MEANING OF FREEDOM.pdf" notes their dismay at the loss of their labor force and their difficulty in adapting to a system where they had to negotiate with formerly enslaved people. The Robert Carter interview, told from the perspective of a family loyal to the Confederacy, describes slaves "slipping back to their cabins" and some wanting to "die on the old plantation," which, while possibly reflecting a romanticized view from 1938, highlights the complex emotional and economic ties that still existed.

3. Political Battles: Reconstruction, Andrew Johnson, and the Struggle for Rights:

  • Presidential vs. Radical Reconstruction: The sources illustrate the conflict between President Andrew Johnson's approach to Reconstruction and that of the Radical Republicans in Congress. Johnson favored a more lenient plan ("Presidential Reconstruction"), focusing on quickly readmitting Southern states with minimal punishment for former Confederates and limited protections for freed people. "The making of Radical reconstruction.pdf" states that Johnson's plan offered "blanket pardons" to those who took an oath and exempted Confederate leaders and wealthy planters. This approach led to the establishment of Southern governments that enacted "Black Codes" ("Reconstruction+Case+Study+(1).pdf" and "The making of Radical reconstruction.pdf") which severely restricted the freedom and rights of African Americans, effectively attempting to restore aspects of slavery.

  • Radical Reconstruction and Federal Intervention: The Radical Republicans believed Johnson's plan was too weak and implemented "Radical Reconstruction," which placed Southern states under military rule and required them to ratify the 14th and 15th Amendments to protect the rights of African Americans, including the right to vote. "RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH.pdf" describes this period as the first time "biracial democratic government...functioned effectively in many parts of the South."

  • Impeachment of Andrew Johnson: The conflict between Johnson and Congress culminated in his impeachment. The "Honors - Johnson Impeachment.pdf" source defines impeachment and poses questions about the process. Johnson was impeached by the House but acquitted by the Senate. Senator Lyman Trumbull, in the "Honors - Johnson Impeachment.pdf" excerpt, articulated a key argument for acquittal: "Once set, the example of impeaching a president for what, when the excitement of the hour shall have subsided, will be regarded as insufficient causes, then no future President will be safe who happens to differ from a majority of the House and 2/3rds of the Senate." This highlights the concern that impeachment could be used for political differences rather than clear constitutional violations.

  • Attempts to Establish Rights for African Americans: Despite the challenges, Reconstruction saw significant efforts to secure rights for freed people. The passage of the 14th Amendment, granting citizenship and equal protection under the law, and the 15th Amendment, prohibiting denial of voting rights based on race, were crucial steps ("The making of Radical reconstruction.pdf"). "RADICAL RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH.pdf" mentions the establishment of school systems and the purging of racist legal codes during this period.

4. Violent Resistance and the Overthrow of Reconstruction:

  • The Ku Klux Klan and White Supremacy: The Reconstruction era was marked by intense and often violent resistance from white Southerners who sought to maintain racial hierarchy and prevent African Americans from exercising their newly gained rights. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) emerged as a prominent white vigilante group using intimidation, violence, and murder to suppress black voters and Republican supporters. "Reconstruction+Case+Study+(1).pdf" states that the KKK carried out "beatings, arson, lynchings, assassinations, and mass killings, directed mostly against Republicans, especially black ones."

  • "Redemption" and the End of Reconstruction: The period following Radical Reconstruction is referred to as "Redemption," where Southern Democrats gradually regained political control through a combination of violence, voter suppression, and shifts in national political priorities. "Reconstruction+Case+Study+(1).pdf" describes how Democrats used "fraud and anti-Republican political violence" to win state elections and ultimately regain power. The Compromise of 1877, which led to the withdrawal of federal troops from the South, is seen as a key turning point marking the end of Reconstruction.

5. The "Lost Cause" Myth:

  • Rewriting History: The "Lost Cause" myth emerged in the aftermath of the Civil War as a way for white Southerners to interpret the Confederacy's defeat and the legacy of slavery. Key tenets of this myth, as outlined in "Honors - The Lost Cause Myth.pdf," include arguing that the cause of the war was states' rights (not slavery), that slaves were content, that the Southern effort was noble and courageous (not treasonous), and that figures like Robert E. Lee were heroes.

  • Downplaying Slavery's Role: A central component of the Lost Cause is the denial or minimization of slavery's role as the primary cause of the war. Excerpts from Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens in "The Lost Cause - Jeff Davis and Alexander Stephens.pdf" illustrate this shift in narrative. While Davis in 1861 explicitly linked secession to the threat to "property in slaves," by 1881 he claimed the war was solely about the "inalienable right of a people to change their government." Alexander Stephens's 1861 "Cornerstone Speech" unequivocally states that the Confederacy is founded on the belief in black inferiority and that slavery is the "corner-stone" of their new government. However, in his later work, he re-frames the conflict as a struggle between Federalism and Centralism, with slavery being "but the question on which these antagonistic principles were finally brought into collision."

  • Perpetuation of the Myth: The "Honors - The Lost Cause Myth.pdf" suggests that the myth was perpetuated through public history, commemoration, and even catechisms for children. It also notes that the North was "complicit in allowing the myth to perpetuate," prioritizing "healing vs. Justice" and "Romance vs. Reality." The focus on glorifying the sacrifice of white soldiers and ignoring the realities of slavery, racism, and the "resubjugation of Afr-Ams" was part of this process. President Trump's 2017 tweet about the removal of statues reflects the enduring legacy and controversy surrounding Lost Cause symbols.

Conclusion:

The period following the Civil War was a tumultuous time of significant change and resistance in the South. While Reconstruction aimed to establish a more equitable society and integrate formerly enslaved people as citizens, it faced formidable opposition from white Southerners who sought to maintain their social and political dominance. The economic constraints of sharecropping, the violent actions of groups like the KKK, and the deliberate construction of the "Lost Cause" myth ultimately contributed to the overthrow of Reconstruction and the establishment of a new system of racial oppression in the South. The sources highlight the complex and often conflicting visions of freedom and the enduring struggle for civil rights and equality in the United States.

This chapter concentrates on the history of Reconstruction. Opening with an explanation of the origins of General William T. Sherman’s Special Field Order 15, which set aside forty-acre plots of land for former slave families, the chapter explores what freedom meant to newly freed African-Americans and how white American society responded to emancipation. There were many meanings of freedom for blacks, and they relished various opportunities to express their liberation from slavery. Land ownership became a contentious issue as blacks were ultimately denied free access to land. The devastation of the Civil War also caused many white farmers to face poverty as tenant farmers and sharecroppers. The chapter discusses the national political developments that led from President Johnson’s lenient plan to the Radical Reconstruction designed by congressional Republicans. In response to Johnson’s many presidential pardons of ex-Confederates and to the South’s implementation of Black Codes, Republicans in Congress fought back with the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the Fourteenth Amendment, and the Reconstruction Act. Johnson resisted and was impeached by the House, but avoided being removed from office by the Senate. The Fifteenth Amendment finished the Radical Republicans’ Reconstruction agenda, but it split the feminist movement because it failed to give the vote to women. The chapter then looks at how Reconstruction shaped southern politics—and at how southern politics shaped Reconstruction. Once Radical Reconstruction accorded suffrage rights to southern black men, African-Americans voted and ran for office. Blacks held over 2,000 public offices during Reconstruction, there were fourteen black members of the U.S. House and two black U.S. senators. Many white southerners, however, felt threatened by black political power, and the Ku Klux Klan began a campaign of terror and violence that sought to intimidate Republican voters, white and black. After the Klan was abolished through the efforts of President Ulysses Grant, white Democrats continued efforts to “redeem” the South from perceived corruption, misgovernment, and northern and black control. Reconstruction ended in 1877, after a compromise was made between the Republicans and Democrats over the disputed 1876 presidential election. (Foner)


The military aspect of the American Civil War lasted less than five years and ended in April 1865, but it would take another dozen years of Reconstruction to determine what the results of the war would be. The only questions clearly settled by the time of Appomattox were that the nation was indivisible and that slavery must end. The nation faced other issues with far-reaching implications. What would be the place of the freedmen in Southern society? How would the rebellious states be brought back into their "proper relationship" with the Union? The victorious North was in a position to dominate the South, but Northern politicians were not united in either resolve or purpose. For over two years after the fighting stopped, there was no coherent Reconstruction policy. Congress and the president struggled with each other, and various factions in Congress had differing views on politics, race, and union. Congress finally won control and dominated the Reconstruction process until Southern resistance and Northern ambivalence led to the end of Reconstruction in 1877.  Whites who reasserted their economic and political control set out to industrialize the region, but with little success. The South remained a troubled agricultural sector. No economic, political, or social issue in the South could escape the race question. The Jim Crow system of the Southern establishment succeeded in evading the spirit of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, and many African Americans began to wonder just who won the Civil War. (Brinkley