Opium Wars in China - Detailed Study Notes
The Opium Wars in China
The Opium Wars, fought in the mid-1800s, represent a significant historical event that continues to influence Chinese historical memory. China fought and lost two wars against European powers, resulting in a period known as the "century of humiliation."
Overview
The Opium Wars, occurring in the mid-19th century, mark an important turning point in modern Chinese history. The First Opium War (1839–1842) pitted China against Great Britain, while the Second Opium War (1856–1860) involved China against both Great Britain and France. China suffered defeat in both conflicts.
The consequences of these defeats were severe. China was forced to cede Hong Kong to British control, open treaty ports to foreign trade, and grant special rights to foreigners within these ports. The British also expanded opium sales in China, disregarding the detrimental effects on the Chinese government and its people, all in the name of free trade.
A key lesson emphasized in Chinese education regarding the Opium Wars is the importance of national strength to avoid vulnerability to foreign powers. As a British historian noted, the Chinese often express this sentiment with the phrase “” which translates to “if you are backward, you will take a beating.”
Two Worlds Collide: The First Opium War
During the mid-19th century, Western imperial powers, including Great Britain, France, and the United States, pursued global expansion through economic and military dominance, as well as the propagation of Christianity via missionaries. These nations advocated for free trade and possessed the military might to enforce these principles.
China, unlike many of its neighbors such as India, Burma (Myanmar), Malaya (Malaysia), Indonesia, and Vietnam, resisted becoming a formal colony of the West. Confucianism, China's secular belief system, did not impede scientific and modern advancements, unlike some religious ideologies in other regions.
However, China struggled to effectively counter the industrialized, mercantilist, and militarily strong West. Governed by a centuries-old bureaucracy and conservative Confucian ideals, 19th-century China differed significantly from European powers. This ineffectiveness led to issues such as unequal treaties, foreign military invasions, internal rebellions, political infighting, and social unrest. While not directly causing the collapse of China’s dynastic system, the first Opium War shifted the balance of power in Asia toward the West.
Opium and the West’s Embrace of Free Trade
In the decades preceding the First Opium War, trade between China and the West was governed by the Canton System, centered in Guangzhou (Canton). Established by the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) and refined by the Qing Dynasty (Manchu Dynasty), this system restricted foreign trade to Guangzhou/Canton starting in 1757. Trade was permitted only through licensed Chinese merchants, subjecting it to strict governmental controls. The CANTON SYSTEM lasted from the 17th to the mid-19th century.
The Scourge and Profit of Opium
The British traded Indian cotton and silver for Chinese tea and goods. However, a trade imbalance favoring China led Britain to replace cotton with opium grown in India. By the 1820s, this reversed the trade balance, with China now paying with silver. The British East India Company profited from a monopoly on opium cultivation in India, particularly in Bengal.
Opium was derived from poppy plants and had a history of medicinal and recreational use in Eurasia. The British East India Company was founded in 1600 and expanded British influence in India and East Asia, especially in China. By the early 19th century, opium addiction became a severe social problem in China, leading to government bans on production, importation, and smoking of opium.
To circumvent these bans, the British East India Company hired private British and American traders to transport opium to China. Chinese smugglers then distributed it within China, leading to increased use and addiction. From 1810 to 1838, opium imports surged from 4,500 to 40,000 chests, causing a massive outflow of silver from China. In 1831, the emperor discovered opium use among his army, government officials, and students.
The Users Versus Pushers Debate
By 1836, the Chinese government began enforcing the 1813 ban more rigorously. However, internal debates arose on how to address the crisis. One faction proposed legalizing and taxing opium. They believed that taxing the drug would make it too expensive for most people and help the Chinese government offset revenue and silver shortfalls. The other side, led by Lin Zexu, advocated for the complete suppression of the opium trade. Lin Zexu argued that the opium trade was a moral issue that threatened the empire's foundations. LIN ZEXU was an effective Chinese official who underestimated British demands and focused on importing technology to address China's humiliation.
Ultimately, Lin Zexu’s stance prevailed. In 1839, he took strict actions in Guangzhou to ban the opium trade. These included an open letter to Queen Victoria questioning the morality of the trade. More importantly, he enforced the 1813 ban by arresting dealers and destroying opium pipes. Lin also demanded the surrender of opium supplies from foreign companies. When they refused, he blockaded foreign trade. Eventually, foreign merchants conceded and handed over 2.6 million pounds of opium. Lin's troops destroyed the opium by mixing it with lime and salt and dumping it into the bay. These actions heightened tensions, leading to the First Opium War.
For the British, Lin’s actions were seen as an affront and a violation of free trade principles. British merchants and the British East India Company had long viewed China as out of touch with civilized nations. British representatives had requested that merchants turn over their opium to Lin, promising compensation from the British government to prevent conflict and keep trade open. The large financial loss from the destroyed opium, along with pressure from merchants, pushed British politicians to take more forceful action to protect British imperial interests in China.
War broke out in November 1839, escalating when British warships and merchantmen arrived at Guangzhou in June 1840. Over the next two years, British forces bombarded forts, seized cities, and engaged in negotiations. A preliminary agreement involved China ceding Hong Kong to the British Empire, paying an indemnity, and granting Britain diplomatic relations. Chinese troops, armed with outdated weaponry, were largely ineffective against the technologically superior British forces.
Technology and Tactics in the First Opium War
The First Opium War exposed the widening technological and military gap between Great Britain and China. Despite having a much larger army, the Qing Dynasty's forces were outmatched by the British, who possessed superior weaponry and warships. The British army consisted of approximately 19,000 soldiers. In comparison, the Qing army was made up of approximately 200,000 troops. The British had learned from the Napoleonic Wars (1799–1815) and used bases in India to supply troops and resources. Steam-driven vessels, such as the warship Nemesis, played a crucial role, allowing for accurate and devastating attacks on inland rivers. The extended firing range of British rifles further amplified their advantage.
The Chinese navy was at a significant disadvantage due to smaller war junks designed for close-range river combat. They adopted defensive tactics, using rivers and fortifications. Although the Chinese had cannons and rifles, their technology lagged behind the British by about 200 years. Britain’s naval firepower was a key factor in the outcome of the war.
Timeline of the First Opium War
Mid-1836: Resistance movement known as the Spring Purification Circle persuades Emperor Daoguang to reject the proposal to legalize opium trade and consumption.
Mid-1838: Lin Zexu writes a letter to Queen Victoria urging her to end the opium trade.
Late 1838: Lin Zexu orders all foreign traders to surrender their opium.
Late 1839: Fighting begins with the Battle of Chuenpi.
Early 1840: Emperor Daoguang asks all foreigners in China to halt material assistance to the British.
Mid-1840: British Indian army troops reach Canton from Singapore.
Early 1841: British launch an attack on Humen Strait. Negotiations result in the Convention of Chuenpi.
Mid to Late 1841: British forces command the high ground around Canton and defeat the military divisions at Ningbo and Dinghai.
Mid-1842: British launch Yangtze River campaign, defeating the Chinese at the mouth of the river and occupying Shanghai.
Mid-1842: The Treaty of Nanking is signed between Britain and China, formally ending the First Opium War. Five new trading ports are opened.
The War’s Aftermath
The Treaty of Nanjing in 1842 marked the end of the First Opium War, granting significant benefits to the British. These included:
Control of Hong Kong's deep-water port.
Large indemnity payments to the British government and merchants.
Opening of five new treaty ports: Guangzhou (Canton), Shanghai, Xiamen (Amoy), Ningbo, and Fuzhou.
Extraterritoriality for British citizens, exempting them from Chinese laws. (EXTRATERRITORIALITY: A concept in the 19th and 20th centuries that foreigners could be exempted from the laws of the country where they were living.)
A “most favored nation” clause, extending any rights granted to other foreign countries to Great Britain.
The treaty offered no benefits to China. Opium imports surged, peaking at 87,000 chests in 1879, before declining due to increased domestic production. However, other trade did not grow as expected, leading to continued dissatisfaction among foreign merchants.
The aftermath of the war led to political divisions in China, with the emergence of a peace faction (aligned with the ‘users’) and a war faction (aligned with the ‘pushers’). The peace faction held nominal control.
The Treaty of Nanjing ended the Canton System, followed by unequal treaties with Western powers in 1844. These treaties allowed Westerners to build churches and spread Christianity. Western imperialism and free trade achieved a major victory in China with this war and its resulting treaties. UNEQUAL TREATY: Series of treaties in the 19th and 20th centuries that forced China to grant territorial rights and cede sovereignty to foreign powers.
Following the death of the Chinese emperor in 1850, his successor dismissed the peace faction, but his attempt to reinstate Lin Zexu failed due to Lin's death. China was reluctant to receive foreign diplomats in Beijing and often failed to meet treaty obligations.
Second Opium War (1856–1860)
The Second Opium War (1856–1860) resulted in further Chinese defeats, leading to new unequal treaties, indemnities, and the opening of 11 more treaty ports. The war also legalized the opium trade and increased Christian missionary activities. The conflict began when Chinese authorities arrested the crew of a British-operated ship. Britain and France, using the execution of a French missionary as further justification, jointly captured Guangzhou and advanced to Tianjin.
In 1858, China tentatively agreed to Western demands through the Treaty of Tientsin. However, China's refusal to ratify these treaties led to renewed hostilities. In 1860, British and French troops entered Beijing, looted, and destroyed the Imperial Summer Palace, prompting the Chinese emperor to flee. His brother negotiated the Convention of Beijing, ratifying the Treaty of Tientsin and ceding the Kowloon Peninsula to Britain.
This war concluded with a weakened Qing Dynasty that needed to modernize and reassess its international relations.
Thinking About the Opium War
In 1839, the British forced their version of free trade on China, arguing for the right of British citizens to conduct business as they pleased. Critics have pointed out the hypocrisy of the British promoting free trade while simultaneously pushing opium, which was illegal in their own country.
Different perspectives exist regarding the underlying motivations for Britain's involvement in the Opium Wars. Some argue it was about upholding free trade principles, while others suggest it was to protect Britain’s international reputation or to expand commercial relations beyond the Canton system. Some historians also suggest the war was waged to maintain China’s trade deficit, with opium serving as a means to this end, despite its detrimental societal effects.
However, it's important to consider that not all Britons supported the opium trade, as evidenced by public and media outrage in both Britain and America. Present-day Chinese historians view the Opium Wars as wars of aggression that taught the harsh lesson that “if you are ‘backward,’ you will take a beating.” These lessons were crucial in shaping the Chinese Revolution against imperialism and feudalism.