Roman Notes
different civilizations populated Italy c. 1800 BC, including but not limited to the Latins,
Etruscans, Umbrians, Samines, and Gauls. Around 750 BC the Greeks arrived in southern Italy.
1. LATINS: Indo-Europeans tribes related to the Dorians cross Alps around 2000 BC and settle
in Po River Valley. They settled area that becomes known as Latium. (central & southern Italy).
The Latins mixed with primitive people to form Latin stock, whose descendants include Romans,
who used the Latin language.
2. ETRUSCANS: Seafaring invaders who conquered Tuscany around 800 BC
and formed loose confederation of city-states. Area became known as Etruria. The Etruscans are
believed to have come from Asia Minor. They reached their height in 6TH century BC
controlling northern and central Italy. Etruscans dominated northern Italy through the 4th century
BC. The Etruscans lived in individual city-states ruled by oligarchies, and never fully united as a
single group. They adapted many aspects of Greek culture, including borrowing the Greek
alphabet (who in turn borrowed from the Phoenicians). The version used by the Etruscans is a
precursor to the alphabet used in English. They introduced superior bronze work, fine black
pottery, and the chariot. Fun stuff: fashion, banquets, and sports and they were superstitious!
They believed middle of day and middle of week were unlucky. Ides!
The last Etruscan King was removed around 509 BC. Between 4th
century BC to 88 BC Etruscan
independence removed. (SEE BELOW) Etruscan culture existed until time of Emperors Claudius
and Nero. Claudius created Etruscan dictionary, and his step-son Nero burned it!
3. GREEKS: Colonized southern Italy and Sicily between 750 to 600 BC. Successfully
defended territory against Etruscans but eventually lost Spain to the Carthaginians. Struggled
with Carthaginians over Sicily for over 200 years! More later in the lecture.
Greek culture was superior to all others and they introduced:
1. ALPHABET
2. RELIGION/GODS
3. OLIVES AND WINE
Founding of city of Rome: The legendary version is Romulus and Remus. The historical
version is as follows. Rome was located next to Tiber River on 7 hills. It began as a farming
village. Central marketplace was known as the forum.
ETRUSCAN RULE: The Etruscans took control of central Italy around 600 BC. Word Roma is
of Etruscan origin. Etruscans introduced: stone buildings, culture, and jewelry making. They also
built sewers and defensive walls around 6 of the 7 hills. Many early Roman kings were
Etruscans. Early Roman kings are less than absolute monarchs – they held power for life, but
their crown did not automatically pass to family members. In the 6th century BC, the elite of
Rome became jealous of the power of kings and overthrew the monarchy, establishing the
Roman Republic. Brutus was one of the leaders of the revolution against the kings. The last
Etruscan king was Tarqinuus Superbus or Tarquin the Proud! After 7 Etruscan kings, Rome
became independent in 509BC.
CULTURE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC:
1. Family: Farming families were the basis of Roman society. Led by paterfamilias or father
who exercised complete control. Father was responsible for the education of his son. Boys were
expected to know customs and laws. Importance of family comes from Latin culture. When the
father died each son became head of own family, resulting in a chain that formed a clan called a
gens linked by name. Roman clan names ended in IUS and these families later became most
prestigious in Rome.
EXAMPLE: Male names in 3 parts:
Praenomen: 1ST
NAME(GAIUS)
Glansnomen: CLAN NAME (JULIUS)
Cognomen: FAMILY NAME (CAESAR).
2. Religion: Primitive animism: the attribution of a soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural
phenomena. Borrowed heavily from the Greeks: oracles and gods. Earliest honored spirit was
Vesta, guardian spirit of the hearth. Adopted from the Greeks: Jupiter(Zeus)= spirit of sky, and
Mars (Ares) = spirit of harvest and warfare. During last 2 centuries of republic, people moved
from Roman religion to eastern mythical cults that offered immortality.
Larariums: Shrines built into the walls for protection of the household.
3. General culture: The sense of culture taken from Latins. It included a belief in virtues called
virtus, or “manliness”. It required extreme obedience to the laws.
EXAMPLES: gravitas: “gravity” A sense of the importance of the matter at hand, responsibility,
and earnestness. A sense of pride about being Latin, which allowed them to feel superior to
others.
dignitas--"Dignity": A sense of self-worth, personal pride. The concept of dignitas required
eligible nobles to serve as magistrates of the Republic or as army officers.
Borrowed various aspects from other cultures: Greek: poetry and philosophy
Egyptian: calendar
Persian: religion, Cult of Mithra.
Education: Boys and girls learned how to read and write.
Role of women: Changed from Republic to empire. In time of Empire women could own and run
businesses. Patrician women lived a life of luxury.
ROMAN SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT:
A. PATRICIAN= Propertied aristocracy/nobility. Less than 10% of population. Enjoyed
political, social, and economic dominance, based on role of importance during time of Etruscans.
B. PLEBEIANS = Main body of Roman citizens. Barred from marriage with patricians,
participation in major religious ceremonies, and originally from holding high offices but were
eventually given roles in the government. Plebeians could never become nobles (a birth right)
but could stake a claim in government if they became wealthy and powerful enough.
C. Slaves and foreigners denied citizenship.
After the overthrow of the Etruscans the Roman formed a republic. However, the republic was
dominated by the patricians due to wealth and social status. The plebeians were forced to serve in
the army at their own expense, but had little to no representation in the government. Laws were
not written publicly allowing for vague interpretations that often favored the patricians.
Eventually the plebeians unite and force changes to the Roman Republic. See below!
THE STRUGGLE FOR PLEBEIAN EQUALITY (CONFLICT OF ORDERS)
Goals for Roman Republic:
1. Government in which everyone has a say.
2. Division of power so no group or individual was too powerful.
Problem= Only the rich can afford to serve in government, so the poor are taken advantage of!
4 steps to plebeian equality also called the Conflict of Orders.
Step 1 = 494 BC. Creation of tribune position. Patricians allow plebians to elect 2 (later 10)
representatives. Position is to look out for the best interest of the plebeians. Tribunes have
veto power over consuls and other officials. Achieved by going on strike from the military
and farming!
Step 2 = 449 BC. Creation of 12 Tables. First written form of Roman law. Applies to both
social classes. Studied laws of Solon.
Step 3 = 336 BC. Position of consul opened to both patricians and plebeians.
Step 4 = 287 BC. Tribal Assembly gains authority to pass laws without consent of Senate.
ROMAN SLAVERY: Slavery was a prominent institution within Rome. Slaves sold at
large markets and were of all nationalities and races. Both men and women were sold, as
many as 10,000 slaves were sold at a time. Slavery began with capture of enemy soldiers
and grew with the Punic Wars:
201 BC= 35,000 Carthaginians.
177 BC= 40,000 Sardinians.
167 BC= 150,000 Greeks.
Slaves were sold initially to aristocrats and business owners, and legally a slave was a
possession. By 100 B.C. 200,000 of Rome inhabitants were slaves. Slave revolts were relatively
common early. Examples: First Servile war: 135 to 132 BC., and the Second Servile war: 103 to
99 BC.
Third Servile war: 73 to 71 BC. Was led by Spartacus. His army grew to 120,000. Defeated
the Roman army many times but could not control his men. Spartacus missed on 2 opportunities
to leave Italy, and this inability to leave Ital fueled his demise. He was finally defeated by
Crassus and killed in battle. The survivors who were captured were then crucified along the
Appian Way, a major road that led south out of Rome.
ARMY: Roman military power propelled the rise of Rome. The Roman military forced
neighbors into submission. Some of those conquered areas are allowed to become Roman
citizens. Other conquered communities were citizens minus voting rights. All conquered
communities contributed money and troops to Rome. Roman military comprised of citizen
troops, generally members of middle class who supplied own armor and weapons. Roman
soldiers wore heavy armor, and they were organized into legions. They differed from the Greek
phalanx in that Roman soldiers trained to fight individually in addition to collectively, making
them more versatile. The Roman army was based on the legion system, which means “to
collect”. The legion system was adopted during the time of the Samnite wars. The Romans
abandoned the phalanx and adopted a checkerboard shape which was more flexible. The phalanx
was then used only for retreating! The officer in charge of a century was called a centurion.
Roman strategy: The first 2 lines of the checkerboard were designed to disrupt the enemy. The
third line was held in reserve. The length of service changed over time, originally being 16 years
under Marius. Later under Caesar Augustus it was 6 to 10 years. By the end of the Roman
Empire, it was 25 - 26 years. Men were only discharged every two years. Done to keep soldiers
in the army and prevent expensive land grant.
Maniple was made up of 10 to 12 men.
6 centuries made up a cohort.
10 maniples made up a century.
10 cohorts made up a legion.
EXPANSION AND GROWTH OF EARLY ROME. ROAD TO EMPIRE.
Following the expulsion of the Etruscan kings, the Romans formed the Latin League in 493 BC
for defensive purposes. The first major conquest by the Romans was the Etruscan stronghold of
Veii in 396 BC. Veii was a commercial rival located north of Rome on the Tiber River. The
victorious Roman general was Camillus. Story like Troy!
Before the Romans could continue expanding north the Gauls invaded from France. July 16, 390
BC became an unlucky day for the Romans after their most embarrassing defeat at the Allia
River. The Gauls then entered Rome pillaging and plundering, except for the fortification on the
Capitoline hill. The remaining Senators were slaughtered! The Gauls were unable to capture the
Capitol even after a 7-month siege. Geese story. The Gauls were eventually bribed to leave by
the Roman leader Camillus who gave them 1000 pounds of gold! The Romans reoccupy and
rebuild the city including new defensive walls.
Next, the Romans conquered the Samnites, a fierce mountain tribe from the Naples area. They
fought a series of 3 wars from 343 to 290 BC. Main issue was the use of pasture land that the
Romans had fenced off. After the battle of Caudine Forks the Samnites forced the Romans to
march back to Rome tied together. The Romans won by overwhelming the Samnites with
superior numbers.
The Greek city-states in southern Italy and Sicily resisted Roman advances in 280 BC. Pyrrhoss
of Epirus (a cousin of Alexander the Great) scored two battle victories against the Romans, but
Southern Italy was known at the time as Magna Graecia, and was ruled by the Greek
king/general Pyrrhos. The dominant Greek colony was Tarentum and in 282 BC they called
upon Pyrrhos for military aid. Rome became involved in a dispute between the Greek cities in
the south, and had agreed to help defend the city Thurii. Pyrrhos won many victories
(Ausculum, Heraclea) against the Romans using elephants, but he also lost a lot of men and his
losses caused him to note “another such victory and I’ll be destroyed”. These types of victories
became known as Pyrrhic victories. He invaded Sicily in 278BC in hope of driving out the
Carthaginians but was unsuccessful. In 275 BC he was defeated by Rome on land, and by
Carthage on the sea. Rome captured Tarentum in 272 BC., and all of southern Italy by 270 BC.
By 265 BC Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula!
RESULTS OF EARLY ROMAN EXPANSION:
1. Conquered people paid taxes, supplied soldiers, and followed Roman leadership.
2. Conquered people kept: customs, money, and local government.
3. A few groups were offered full citizenship, but most were offered just partial citizenship.
4. Romans posted a network of soldiers throughout the land.
THE PUNIC WARS: Rome vs. Carthage. Name comes from Punicus, the Latin word for
Phoenician, who were the original settlers of Carthage. Carthage had a strong navy, but its
army was composed mainly of mercenaries. Rome eventually wins due to the ability of their
allies to provide supplies and men – Rome can continually rebuild fleets even after they are
destroyed by Carthage navy.
The cause of the wars was initially a struggle over Sicily. Both Carthage and Rome are
seeking to control trade on the Mediterranean Sea.
1st
Punic War (264-241 BC): Began with Roman invasion of Sicily and became a naval war.
Romans eventually captured and copied the Carthaginian ship design. Romans added the corvus
(raven). Corvus was a gangplank with a spike that dropped down attaching 2 ships together.
Hamilcar Barcas was best Carthaginian general. Carthaginian fleet was annihilated by 241 BC.
Terms of peace treaty to end 1st
Punic War:
1. Carthage gives Sicily to Rome.
2. Carthage pays a large indemnity which forces them to have to hire more mercenaries.
3. Rome seizes Sardinia in 238 BC and Corsica in 227 BC leading to a second war.
2nd
Punic War (218 – 201 BC)
Causes:
1. Carthage’s desire for revenge. 2. Rome concerned over Carthage’s expansion into
Spain.
Carthage tries to make up for losses in the 1st
Punic War by expanding into Spain. Spain
also had Greek city-states, who also asked Rome to intervene against Carthage. This caused
the second Punic War. The greatest Carthaginian general is Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barcas.
In 217 BC, Hannibal leaves Spain, crosses the Alps and Pyrenees mountains, and enters the Po
River Valley. He left Spain with between 50,000 to 30,000 troops and lost ½ along the way.
Recruited Gauls and others conquered by the Romans to serve as his replacements.
Important battles and results:
218 BC Hannibal outsmarts the Romans and wins the first major battle of the war at the Trebbia
River. Between 12,000 to 15,00 Roman casualties.
217 BC Hannibal defeats Romans at Lake Tresimenus. He uses the lake, hills, and a foggy
morning for the ambush, killing close to 15,000 of the 25,000-man Roman army. All captured
non-Romans were released unharmed. Why?
216 BC Hannibal inflicts great defeat of Romans at famous battle of Cannae.
Hannibal = Less than 40,000 men.
Romans = Around 79,000 men.
Roman Consuls/Generals at Cannae: ***Romans had daily alternating commandership.
Paulus: Does not want to fight. Stays and dies in the battle.
Varro: Wanted to do battle with Hannibal but ran when the heavy fighting started.
Hannibal uses a pincer maneuver to surround Romans. He maneuvers the Romans so that they
are facing into the sun and slowly draws them in. Fleeing Romans were hamstrung, and the
Carthaginians spent hours slaughtering the surrounded Romans. Only 15,000 survived.
Hannibal again released non-Roman prisoners.
Roman reaction to Cannae: Only 15,000 Romans survived and were placed in 2 special legions
and forced to serve in Sicily until the war was over. Roman losses include 1 consul, 2 quaestors,
29 of 48 military tribunes and 80 senators. Romans placed in a state of panic. Some officers even
suggested abandoning Rome and fleeing to hire themselves out as mercenaries. Junius Pera was
elected as dictator. The then Romans raised new legions by freeing prisoners and slaves. By 211
BC Rome fielded 25 legions when normally they had only 4! Quintus Fabius Maximus was
appointed as the new Roman military leader. His strategy was mirror Hannibal’s
movements and not engage him in direct combat. These tactics earned him the nickname
“the Delayer” and have become known as Fabian tactics. To Hannibal’s frustration the
Roman will is not broken! Hannibal is never able to break the Roman spirit as evidenced
by the fact that land outside of Rome continued to change hands at fair market value (211
BC).
Carthaginian Reaction to Cannae: Hannibal is encouraged by his generals to attack a
defenseless Rome. He refuses. Probably his biggest mistake. The rings of killed Roman
knights were taken to Carthage and poured onto their Senate floor.
The 2nd
Punic War continues: 214 to 212 BC. The famous siege of Syracuse. Archimedes’
defenses help Syracuse hold out for 2 years: cranes to overturn ships, shields to reflect
sunlight.
The Turning Point In The War: In 207 BC Hannibal’s brother, Hadsrubal attempted to march
an army into Italy to bring Hannibal reinforcements. He was successful in crossing both the Alps
and Pyrenees mountains. He attempted to march south to join Hannibal but was cut off by a
combined Roman army. Hadsrubal was defeated at the battle of Metaurus River. He died in the
battle and his head was flung into Hannibal’s camp. Hannibal realizes his invasion is a lost cause
P. Cornelius Scipio then drives the Carthaginians out of Spain. In 205 BC, Scipio invades north
Africa. Hannibal is recalled to Carthage to defend the city.
In 202 BC, at the battle Zama, outside Carthage, Scipio’s superior cavalry defeats Hannibal
using some of Hannibal’s own tactics. Scipio becomes known as Scipio Africanus and Hannibal
is forced to escape to Syria. Eventually commits suicide before he can be turned over to the
Romans.
Peace Treaty to end the 2nd
1. Carthage loses Spain.
Punic War
Punic War:
2. Destruction of Carthaginian fleet.
3. Carthage pays a huge indemnity for 50 years.
3rd
149 to 146 BC. Influenced by Roman Senator Cato who ended all speeches with “Cartago
delende est!” or “Carthage must be destroyed”. Carthage resisted Roman invasion for 3
years, but eventually the Romans entered the city. Fighting lasted in Carthage for 6 weeks and in
the end was house to house and hand to hand combat. In the end, Carthage’s population reduced
from 500,000 to around 55,000. Carthage is burned to the ground and salt is sown into fields.
All survivors were sold as slaves.
RESULTS OF THE PUNIC WARS:
1. By 133 BC the Romans controlled from Spain to Egypt. They referred to the Mediterranean as
“our sea”. Rome gains control of nearby islands such as Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.
2. Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor are Roman provinces.
3. Warfare changes. Instead of coming home for the growing season, the army stays until
the battle is finished. This change has a significant social impact on Rome: women are
forced to pay taxes but cannot afford to, and so they are forced to move to the cities with
their slaves. The cities cannot handle the increase in population. Slums are formed. The
Roman welfare system is developed. “Bread and circuses” Free bread and gladiators for
entertainment.
MACEDONIAN WARS: Roman Conquest of Greece
The Antigonids were a Macedonian based civilization, and a remnant of Alexander’s
empire. Some Greek cities turn to Rome as allies against the Antigonids, Rome defeats
Antigonids, leading to end of Macedonian control of Greece. A series of 4 wars are fought in
Greece, ending with the destruction/burning of the city of Corinth. Romans turn Macedon
into a province, taxing their ample wealth to the extent that Rome cancels taxes on its own
citizens.
First Macedonian War: 215 to 205 BC
Cause: King Philip V of Macedon allied with Hannibal in 2nd
Result: Roman navy prevents Philip V from crossing into Italy.
2nd
Macedonian War: 200 to 196 BC
Cause: War of revenge against Philip V of Macedonia for his actions in the 2nd
Punic War.
Punic War.
Result: In 197 BC at battle of Cynoscephalae, Roman legions defeat Philip V. Romans declare
all Greeks to be free!
3rd
Macedonian War: 171 to 168 BC
Cause: Perseus, son of Philip V, allies himself with Seleucid kingdom and Rhodes and attempts
to defeat Romans.
Result: Perseus is defeated, and Romans capture enough loot to end direct taxation on Roman
citizens.
4th
Macedonian War 149 to 148 BC
Cause: Greeks refuse to end aggression toward Romans. Romans make Corinth an example by
burning the city, killing all the males, and selling women and children into slavery. Macedonia
becomes Roman province and all of Greece comes under control of a Roman appointed
governor. Only Athens and Sparta remain autonomous.
THE SYRIAN WAR 192 -189 BC.: The Seleucids were another of Alexander’s Hellenistic
dynasties that initially resisted Rome. Antiokhos III comes to Greece from Seleucid center in
Asia Minor, but is defeated by Romans, Scipio Africanus at the battle of Magnesia. Hannibal
had taken refuge with Antiokhos III but commits suicide in 184 BC to avoid capture. Antiohkos
IV, son of III, tries to conquer Egypt, but Roman diplomats convince him to back off.
PERGAMON: Rome continues to expand (Carthage now a Roman province), sometimes in
unconventional ways. Pergamon is surrendered to Rome on the deathbed of a Pergamon
monarch, Attalos III who does not want control to passed to his brother.
CREATION OF ROMAN EMPIRE: By 133 BC Rome had 8 provinces and controlled Greece,
all of Italy and Spain, and part of North Africa, as well as parts of western Asia Minor. Roman
expansion comes at social and military costs.
PROBLEMS THAT LED TO THE COLLAPSE OF ROMAN REPUBLIC:
I Decline of political morality. Roman politicians also lead armies, and they begin to pick
fights with other territories for their own benefit (not the benefit of Rome). Roman soldiers
(middle class farmers) spend too much time away from their land and go bankrupt. The
rich generals/politicians buy the farms and use slave labor (the spoils of war) instead of
Roman citizens to work the land. The individual became more important than the group.
A. Rise of extremely wealthy group who demonstrated a love of luxury.
B. Rise of equite class. Former horsemen in the army who became wealthier through war
profiteering (Punic Wars).
C. Decline of the Senate = Many members became immensely wealthy through control of
the provinces and taking bribes. Other officials used their offices to acquire personal
fortunes.
II. Decline of Roman farmer who were the backbone of Roman republic.
A. Loss of life: From many wars. Punic Wars, Macedonian Wars, wars of expansion
B. Loss of good farmland: Hannibal destroyed 50% of the Roman fields.
C. Influx of cheap slave grown corn. Drove down prices of the Roman farmers.
D. Rise of latifundia or large estates. Worked more economically with slaves.
II. Rise of unemployment: Thriving slave markets displaced: 1. small farmers 2. free
workers, 3. domestic servants. The unemployed drifted into Rome and became an economic
and political liability.
IV. Decline of political stability.
A. Widening gap between the rich and poor. A few families represented the majority of political
control.
B. 1. Optimates: Conservatives who were majority of the Senate. They represented the
patricians.
2. populares: Liberals who championed reform for the poor.
C. Italian tribes who were angry at being denied Roman citizenship.
GRACCHI BROTHERS:
I. Who are they? Two brothers (Tiberius Gracchi and Gauis Gracchi) serve as tribunes
between 133 BC and 121 BC. The grandsons of Scipio Africanus, they are from a wealthy
patrician family. They propose laws to limit the amount of land any one person can hold and
colonize other areas to give farms to the landless, winning support of the people but the
animosity of the elite/Patricians. They proposed land reform program to:
1. LIMIT SIZE OF ESTATES
2. REDISTRIBUTE LAND TO THE POOR.
II. Tiberius: Elected tribune in 133 BC. When he attempted to run for re-election, he was
murdered by a mob along with 300 supporters after: promising citizenship to Italian allies and
violating election reforms. Land reforms based on wealth from acquisition of Pergamon!
III. Gaius: Elected tribune in 124 BC. He placed his brother’s reforms into effect (see above)
but went too far by attempting to grant citizenship to Italian tribes! Gaius was far more
confrontational than his brother and some of his new laws were directed at those responsible for
the death of Tiberius. He ran for re-election and won leading the Senate to move to repeal the
Gracchi laws and chaos/violence broke out! He was hunted until he committed suicide and 3000
of his followers were executed!
IV. Key Result of the Gracchi brothers: LED TO PERMANENT DISTRIBUTION OF FREE
GRAIN. THIS LED TO DISTRIBUTION OF BREAD TO THE POOR. THE DOLE!
COLLAPSE OF THE ROMA REPUBLIC AND ROAD TO CIVIL WARS
I. Gaius Marius (157 to 86 BC) Roman general and politician. He was an effective general
chosen as a tribune but denied an army by the Senate. He recruits legions without the property
qualification, then gets senate to award land to his soldiers after their victories. It is a
precedent that follows for the next century, generals using landless soldiers by promising
the soldiers rewards from the senate for their service. The veterans of the wars become
political clients of the generals, meaning armies are loyal to generals, not the state.
RESULTS: 1. He made army professional by calling for volunteers from the city working
class. 2. ARMIES NOW MORE LOYAL TO GENERALS RATHER THEN STATE!
He also successfully concluded the Jugurthine War. Jugurtha was the king of Numidia, who had
previously been an ally of Rome. The Romans were unable to control him, but he kept power by
bribing Senators. He was defeated by the Romans when his father-in-law betrayed him.
II. Social Wars (91 to 88 BC) Were a revolt by the Italian tribes seeking equitable treatment
that was denied by the Senate Gaius Marius won victories in the north and Sulla won
victories in the south. Rome finally granted full citizenship to the Italian tribes, but over
300,000 people were killed in the war. The tribes were grouped in a way to insure Roman
dominance.
III. Civil War Part 1. Marius vs. Sulla (88 to 82 BC)
Marius was supported by the populares, and Sulla was supported by the optimates. Sulla fought
rebellious allies in Italy and secured a spot as a consul. He wanted the lucrative military
command of fighting Mithradates VI of Pontus, but Sulla's political advances are blocked by
Marius. If Marius regained power, Sulla’s soldiers lost their political influence. Sulla was
designated to lead an army to Asia Minor. The Tribal Assembly then ordered a transfer of
military power to Marius, leading to conflict between Marius and Sulla.
Sulla the became the first Roman general to:
1. USE ARMY FOR POLITICAL PURPOSES
2. MARCH ARMY INTO ROME
Marius then fled to Africa, after Sulla seizes power. Sulla then consolidates his power in Rome
and leaves for Asia Minor. Marius returns to Rome to seize control and become a consul for the
7th time but dies in office. Sulla returns to Rome in 82 BC and defeats the supporters of Marius.
Sulla wins first Roman civil war when Marius died and becomes Roman dictator. He then
establishes an absolute dictatorship from 82 to 79 BC by: 1. killing the leaders of the populares,
and 2. making the power of Senate supreme once more, and then retires from office!
Sulla also gave land to his soldiers and instituted reforms that limited the power of the tribunes.
Sulla remained dictator for two years, longer than Roman law allowed, thereby weakening
Roman political institutions.
RISE OF CAESAR:
The struggle between the populares and the optimates renews in 78 BC with the death of Sulla.
In 60 BC. the 1ST
TRIUMVIRATE, 3 powerful men who have protection from the Senate, is
formed. It consists of:
1. POMPEY: Protege of Sulla and most powerful of the 3. Repealed some of Sulla’s reforms,
winning favor with the plebeians. Pompey defeats Mithradates VI of Pontus and expands the
Roman Empire. Mithradates VI wanted control of Black Sea coast, fought the Roman general
Sulla over Pergamon. Mithradates VI, although not a Roman, was a central figure in causing
first Roman civil war. Successful military general supported by the Tribal Assembly and allied
with Crassus.
2. CRASSUS: The wealthiest man in Rome. (est. 25 million!) Defeated Spartacus in battle twice.
3. JULIUS CAESAR: Nephew of Marius. Originally financially backed by Crassus, but
soon acquired great personal wealth through political positions. His appointment to the
Triumvirate successfully blocks a civil war between Crassus and Pompey. Acquired great
fame and fortune with his conquest of Gaul.
The First Triumvirate ends with the sudden death of Crassus, killed fighting in the east. Pompey
switched allegiances from the populares to the optimates because of Caesar’s growing popularity.
in 49 BC., Caesar was ordered to disband his army before returning from Gaul or become a
public enemy! Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with 1 legion, was the joined by 2 more
legions, and then raised 3 more from the enthusiastic population! Caesar becomes second
Roman general to march army into Rome. Pompey with 10 legions fled to Greece without
giving battle! Caesar defeats Pompey in 48 BC at the battle of Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey
flees to Egypt where he is promptly executed by the Egyptian boy king Ptolemy XIII.
Caesar arrives and forms an alliance with Cleopatra making her the co-ruler of Egypt. He
leaves Egypt due to revolt in the east. Revolt crushed so quickly that he issued his famous
quote VINI, VIDI, VICI! In 46 and 45 BC he defeats the rest of Pompey’s family and seizes
control of Rome.
Rule of Caesar: In 46 BC Caesar became dictator for 10 years, and then in 44 BC he
appointed himself dictator for life. Roman dictators supposed to rule for 6-month periods
in emergencies only. He broke aristocratic control of Senate by increasing number to 900 with
army veterans and province citizens now admitted. He spent only 17 months in Rome from 49 to
44 BC due to civil wars. He was a military genius who increased and consolidated the bounds of
the Roman empire. Master at moving his army with great speed and improvising new tactics on
the battlefield. Led his men into battle when the soldiers wavered.
Reforms of Caesar: He was the first to grant citizenship to the provinces. He adopted the
Julian Calendar. Caesar decreased unemployment, stimulated trade and commerce, and
began public works program which curtailed the distribution of free grain.
Assassination of Caesar: Assassinated by the Senate who feared permanently losing their
power. There were rumors that Caesar wants to be made king (in opposition to Roman
tradition. The plot involved some 60 senators including Cicero, one of Rome’s greatest
orators.
He was murdered on the way into the Senate Chamber and died at the base of Pompey’s statue.
FINAL STAGE OF CIVIL WARS:
I. Formation of Second Triumvirate
A. Marc Antony: Caesars chief lieutenant and right-hand man. Won control of Rome after his
famous funeral oration. However, he soon lost control by failing to carry out Caesars will
including Octavian. Eventually came to need the support of Octavian’s private army.
B. Octavian: Adopted nephew of Caesar. Supported by Senate over Antony. Changed his support
from Senate to Marc Antony in order to get revenge for Caesar’s murder.
C. Lepidus: One of Caesar’s former generals and an Antony supporter.
Unlike the 1st
Triumvirate, this one is formal and official. This indicates that political
institutions in Rome are becoming less rigid, the Republic is falling apart!
II. Caesars revenge: The 2nd
Triumvirate marked about 300 Senators and 2000 others for
execution, including Cicero, who was executed in 43 BC. At the Battle of Philippi. 42 BC. In
Greece, Antony and Octavian defeat the combined army of Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Both
commit suicide after the battle. The 2nd
Triumvirate divides up Rome’s domains:
1. Antony: EGYPT, GREECE, THE EAST, BY CHOICE
2. Octavian: WEST, DIVIDES GAUL W/LEPIDUS
3. Lepidus: AFRICA, SHARED GAUL W/OCTAVIAN
The 2nd
Triumvirate ends when Lepidus attempts to seize Sicily from Octavian. His troops
desert him and he is forced to retire.
RISE OF OCTAVIAN: Antony is considered to be stronger than Octavian however, his
poor decision-making and lack of political savvy cost him. He lost almost 50,000 troops in
an ill-advised invasion of Parthia, and he divorced Octavian’s sister and married
Cleopatra. Octavian was more politically savvy than Antony. Used his time in Rome to gain
support of the Senate and proclaimed the fear of Egyptian dominance. At the Battle of Actium
in 31 BC., off the coast of Greece, Octavian’s smaller faster ships outmaneuver Antony and
Cleopatra’s navy. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt where they were pursued by Octavian until
they both committed suicide rather than be captured by Octavian.
DECLINE OF ROMAN REPUBLIC: OCTAVIAN
Peace is restored in Rome through Octavian’s dominance, lasting 45 years. This marks the
transformation from Roman Republic to Roman Empire (ruled by emperor). Octavian
takes new name, Augustus, and rules as a Roman emperor. Instead of taking control as
“dictator” as others before him had, Octavian/Augustus took his powers in new ways and
new titles. When Caesar is made a god by the Senate, Octavian/Augustus adds Caesar to
his own name to show he is a son of a god. All Roman emperors from here on out will be
regarded as Caesar!