feminist theory of religion

Feminists see society as patriarchal - that is, based on male domination. Many feminists regard religion as a patriarchal institution that reflects and perpetuates this inequality.

Religious beliefs function as a patriarchal ideology that legitimates female subordination.

Evidence of patriarchy

Although the formal teachings of religions often stress equality between the sexes, there is considerable evidence of patriarchy within many of them. For example:

• Religious organisations are mainly male-dominated despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations. For example, Orthodox Judaism and Catholicism forbid women to become priests. Karen Armstrong (1993) sees exclusion from the priesthood as evidence of women's marginalisation.

• Places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women, for example seating them behind screens while the men occupy the central and more sacred spaces. Women's participation may be restricted, for example not being allowed to preach or to read from sacred texts. Taboos that regard menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation.
  For example, in Islam, menstruating women are not allowed to touch the Qur'an. Jean Holm (2001) describes this as the devaluation of women in religion.

• Sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods, prophets etc, and are usually written and interpreted by men. Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as that of Eve who, in the Judaeo-Christian story of Genesis, caused humanity's fall from grace and expulsion from the Garden of Eden.

• Religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men, for example in access to divorce, howmany spouses they may marry, decision making, dress codes etc. Religious influences on cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment, such as genital mutilation or punishments for sexual transgressions. Many religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role. For example, the Catholic Church bans abortion and artificial contraception. Woodhead (2002)

  argues that the exclusion of women from the Catholic priesthood is evidence of the Church's deep unease about the emancipation of women generally.

  However, feminists argue that women have not always been subordinate to men within religion. Karen Armstrong (1993)

  argues that early religions often placed women at the centre. For example, earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priesthoods were found throughout the Middle East until about 6,000 years ago. However, from about 4,000 years ago, the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, all-powerful male God, such as the Hebrews' Jehovah, and male prophets such as Abraham/ Ibrahim, the first prophet of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

  While religion may be used to oppress women, Nawal El Saadawi (1980) argues that it is not the direct cause of their subordination. Rather, this is the result of patriarchal forms of society coming into existence in the last few thousand years. However, once in existence, patriarchy began to influence and re-shape religion. For example, men reinterpreted religious beliefs in ways that favoured patriarchy. Thus religion now contributes to women's oppression. Like Armstrong, El Saadawi sees the rise of monotheism as legitimating the power of men over women

  Religious forms of feminism

  Linda Woodhead (2009) criticises feminist explanations that simply equate religion with patriarchy and the oppression of women. While accepting that much traditional religion is patriarchal, she emphasises that this is not true of all religion. She argues that there are 'religious forms of feminism' - ways in which women use religion to gain greater freedom and respect.

  Woodhead uses the example of the hijab or veil worn by many Muslim women. While Western feminists tend to see it as a symbol of oppression, to the wearer it may be a means of liberation. According to Sophie Gilliat-Ray (2010), some young British Muslim women choose to wear the hijab in order to gain parental approval to enter further education and especially employment, where Muslim women's presence has traditionally been problematic. For them, the hijab is a symbol of liberation that allows them to enter the public sphere without being condemned as immodest.

  Women also use religion to gain status and respect for their roles within the private sphere of home and family.

  For example, as Elisabeth Brusco (1995; 2012) found in Colombia, belonging to a Pentecostal group can be empowering for some women. Despite the strong belief .. traditional gender roles that such groups hold, women are able to use religion to increase their power and influence, For example, a strongly held belief among Pentecostals is that men should respect women. This gives women power to influence men's behaviour by insisting that they practise what they preach and refrain from 'macho behaviour.

  Similarly, women make use of activities linked to the church such as Bible study groups, to share experiences and find support. (For more about the 'Pentecostal gender paradox'.

  Piety movements Rachel Rinaldo (2010) sees this pattern as typical of 'piety movements'. These are conservative movements that support traditional teachings about women's role, modest dress, prayer and Bible study. They include Pentecostal and evangelical groups, and some forms of non-Christian religions.

  Like Brusco and Woodhead, Rinaldo argues that even within conservative religions, women may sometimes find ways to further their own interests. However, she notes that it is middle-class urban women who are most likely to join piety movements. These women may already have other resources, such as education and income, with which to pursue their goals.

  Liberal Protestant organisations, such as the Quakers and the Unitarians, are often committed to gender equality and women play leading roles. For example, a third of Unitarian ministers are female. The Church of England, the official state church in England, has had female priests since 1992 and female bishops since 2015. Over a fifth of its priests are female.