Chapter 8- Applied Psychology: The Legacy of Functionalism
Chapter 8: Applied Psychology: The Legacy of Functionalism
FDA Raid: Target Coca-Cola
Date & Location: October 20, 1909, outside Chattanooga, Tennessee.
Event: U.S. federal agents conducted a drug bust on Coca-Cola’s shipment claiming it contained poisonous and habit-forming substances, specifically caffeine.
Consequences: Coca-Cola management could face serious legal trouble if found guilty, prompting them to hire a psychologist for research to defend their product.
Harry Hollingworth's Involvement
Background: Teaching at Barnard College, facing financial difficulties, accepted Coca-Cola's case as an opportunity.
Ethics: Ensured research integrity; Coca-Cola agreed to allow publication of results regardless of outcomes and not to use findings for advertising.
Research Program: Conducted for 40 days with approximately 64,000 measurements on effects of caffeine on motor and mental functions.
Outcome: No harmful effects attributed to caffeine found, leading to the company's eventual victory in the case (later overturned by Supreme Court).
Evolution of American Psychology
Functionalism Emergence: Late 19th century evolution from Wundt’s structuralism to practical, functional psychology, influenced heavily by Darwin, Galton, and Spencer.
Adaptation to Environment: American psychologists shifted focus from introspection to studying the mind in action, reflecting the American emphasis on practical applications.
Increase in Psychology Literature: By 1900, 25% of psychological publications were applied, compared to less than 3% introspection
Growth and Development (1880-1900)
Laboratories: From none in 1880 to 41 by 1900 in the U.S., equipped better than those in Germany.
Publications: Rise from no journals to three by 1895; saw increased interest in psychology in popular magazines.
Student Interest: Enrollments in psychology programs surged, showcasing the discipline's alignment with practical needs.
World's Fairs: Debuted psychology to the general public, as seen in 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, highlighting its scientific credibility and societal relevance.
Economic Influences on Applied Psychology
Contextual Forces: Financial necessity drove many early psychologists to seek applied roles; gradual integration of psychology into practical sectors such as education and business.
School Psychology: Special focus on education as a field of application due to increasing enrollments in public schools (7 million in 1870 to 20 million by 1915). Figures like G. Stanley Hall and William James emphasized psychology's role in education.
Cattell's Contributions: Pioneered mental testing as a practical application of psychology.
Mental Testing
James McKeen Cattell: Created the term 'mental tests', focused on human abilities rather than content of consciousness; his tests measured sensorimotor abilities (reaction time, two point threshold, pressure, weights) . and used statistical analyses
Functionalism: He focused on human abilities rather than content of consciousness, aligning more with functionalist ideas.
Alfred Binet: Developed the first psychological test of mental ability, emphasizing cognitive functions and introducing the concept of mental age.
Lewis Terman: Translated and revised Binet’s work, establishing the Stanford-Binet test and the IQ concept. (defined by the ratio of mental age to chronological age)
World War I and Group Testing
Psychology’s Role: Psychology's involvement in assessing intelligence for military recruits through group tests (Army Alpha and Beta protocols).
Implications: Outputs revealed widespread illiteracy, raising public awareness of psychology's practical applicability.
Racial Differences in Intelligence
Controversial Testing: Intelligence tests at Ellis Island inaccurately labeled immigrants as feebleminded due to language barriers.
Legacy of Testing: Influence of testing on restrictive immigration policies and societal perceptions of intelligence attributed to race.
Criticism and Alternative Views
Horace Mann Bond's Research: Bond argued environmental factors, not genetics, explained IQ differences. His findings indicated Black individuals from northern states scored higher than southern whites, challenging notions of racial inferiority.
Contributions from Women
Women’s Roles: Significant contributions in testing and applied psychology, albeit often unrecognized in academic circles. Key figures included
Florence Goodenough (nonverbal intelligence test for children)
Maude Merrill James: Co-authored the Terman-Merrill revision of the Stanford-Binet test.
Thelma Gwinn Thurstone: Contributed to the Primary Mental Abilities test battery, often overlooked despite significant input.
Psyche Cattell: Extended the Stanford-Binet test for infants with her Cattell Infant Intelligence Scale.
Anne Anastasi: A leading figure in psychological testing, published extensively, and served as APA president.
Professional Barriers: Despite involvement in applied fields, women faced systemic biases and limited recognition in mainstream psychological literature and organizations.
Clinical Psychology Movement
Lightner Witmer: Established the first psychology clinic, focused on learning and behavioral problems in children, emphasizing practical applications of psychology.
Methodology: Developed diagnostic and treatment approaches tailored to individual children’s needs, recognizing the role of environmental factors in psychological issues
Hugo Münsterberg: Advocated for applied psychology across various domains, notably clinical, industrial, and forensic psychology. : Wrote Psychotherapy (1909), outlining techniques for treating mental disorders, further popularizing clinical psychology.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology Movement
Walter Dill Scott: First applied psychologist in business settings, focusing on efficiency and practical application of psychological principles in advertising and personnel selection.
Advertising Work:
Published The Theory and Practice of Advertising (1903), emphasizing emotional influence on consumers.
Suggested techniques like direct commands and return coupons to enhance ad effectiveness.
Personnel Selection:
Developed rating scales and group tests for evaluating candidates, focusing on practical intelligence and job performance.
Aimed to understand how intelligence functions in real-world settings.
Hawthorne Studies:
Research in the 1920s showed social and psychological factors in the workplace influenced employee productivity more than physical conditions.
The Impact of World Wars
Promotion of Applied Psychology: Both World Wars expanded the field significantly, leading to increased public recognition and acceptance.
Post-war Developments: The need for mental health professionals surged after World War II, laying the foundation for modern clinical psychology.
Hugo Münsterberg:
On the Witness Stand (1908): Explored eyewitness testimony and its fallibility.
Psychotherapy (1909): Focused on behavioral approaches to mental illness.
Impact of World War I (1914-1918)
War elevated psychology's status, making it prominent in public discourse.
Increased funding and job opportunities in psychology; new departments and labs established.
Shift in Focus
Applied psychology became a "national mania," addressing issues like marital problems and job dissatisfaction.
Criticism in the 1930s
The Great Depression led to disillusionment with applied psychology.
Broadening Scope of Psychology
Applied psychologists now work in diverse fields: clinical, industrial-organizational, forensic, educational, health, etc.
Expansion beyond traditional academic confines facilitated by:
Darwin's adaptation theory.
Galton's measurement of individual differences.
American emphasis on practicality.
Historical social and economic factors.
Influence of Behaviorism
Movement toward practical applications paved the way for the rise of behaviorism in psychology.