Introduction to Moral Philosophy and Bioethics

Human existence is described as an incomprehensible contradiction based on two primary factors:
- Humans are born without their knowledge.
- Humans will die, most probably against their will.
Life is viewed as a "BIG PROBLEM," which leads to a search for the ultimate meaning of life.
Philosophy is defined as the ceaseless, intellectual quest for the existential import of life.

Ethics, also known as Moral Philosophy, is characteristically defined as a practical and normative science based on reason.
It focuses on the study of human acts and provides the criteria for their goodness or badness.
Ethics as a science involves the following components:
- Human Acts: The subject matter involves actions performed by humans.
- Norm: It functions as a standard or rule for behavior.
Distinction in Human Acts:
- Ethics specifically deals with human acts insofar as they are performed with intellectual deliberation and freedom.
- An individual’s moral responsibility is tied to these two factors: deliberation and freedom.

Ethical postulates are fundamental assumptions or requirements for the existence of morality. There are three primary postulates identified:
- A. Human Freedom: The capacity for choice and self-determination.
- B. The Immortality of the Soul: The concept that the soul persists beyond physical death.
- C. God: The existence of a divine being or ultimate moral authority.

General Ethics:
- Refers to the diverse ethical formulations of general and universal concepts and principles.
- These principles serve as the foundation of morality.
- It is also referred to as Normative Ethical Inquiry.
Applied Ethics:
- Referred to as "special ethics."
- This involves applying general moral concepts and principles to specific situations in life where they are applicable, valid, and legitimate.
- Examples include:
  - Legal ethics
  - Professional codes of ethics
  - Nursing ethics

Etymology: The term Bioethics literally means the "ethics of LIFE."
Scope and Definition:
- It is considered the ethics of medical care but is explicitly noted as not being equivalent to medical ethics (which is specific to the medical profession).
- It investigates practices and developments within the life sciences and/or biomedical fields.
- It is an applied study of ethical issues and values across medicine, biology, and the behavioral sciences.
Primary Predicaments:
- Bioethics primarily deals with dilemmas concerning LIFE, HEALTH, and DEATH.
- These dilemmas often result from modern biological technology and the specific ways they affect human values.
Interdisciplinary Nature:
- The bioethical approach is strictly interdisciplinary.
- It requires pooling together all pertinent available knowledge, including:
  - Biological data
  - Philosophical analysis
  - Theological perspectives
  - Medical expertise
  - Legal frameworks
  - Psychosocial insights
  - Sociological studies
- Divergent ethical perceptions are presented so that the relative strengths and weaknesses of alternate positions can be evaluated to settle moral dilemmas.

Primitive Ethics / Group Morality:
- Even primitive tribes utilized a set of unwritten precepts or codes.
- These dictated how individuals (such as troglodytes) acted and behaved in relation to others in the group.
- This is characterized as a system of values established for the sake of survival.
Phase 1: Medical Ethics:
- The oldest phase, dating back to the $3^{rd}$ century BC.
- Notable reference: The Hippocratic Oath, which emphasizes the duty to keep a patient away from harm and injustice.
- Notable reference: Perceival Medical Ethics.
Phase 2: Research Ethics (Ethics of Care):
- This phase involves conducting experiments using humans as specimens.
- Notable reference: The Nuremberg Code ( $1947$ ).
- Key concepts include informed consent, decision-making, and choice.
Phase 3: Public Policy:
- This stage accentuates the participatory aspect of decision-making within a democratic setup.
- It concerns the formulation of public policies for the benefit of all members of society.

Beneficence:
- Defined by the mandates to "Do no harm and produce the good" or "do good and do no harm."
Autonomy (Ethics of Care):
- Defined as the right to self-determination.
Justice:
- Defined as rendering for what is due or merited.

The transcript poses a fundamental philosophical debate regarding the necessity of a divine figure for moral structures:
- Position 1: "There can be no morality without God."
- Position 2: "Morality is still possible without God."
Critical Question for Reflection:
- "Should an individual be held morally for all his/her acts?" (This refers back to the requirement of intellectual deliberation and freedom).