Critical Theory and Postmodernism Notes

Course Introduction

  • The course is divided into three parts:
    • Mainstream IR theory (realists and liberals).
    • Alternative theories (critical theory, postmodernism, and constructivism).
    • A deep dive into a midrange theory.

Alternative Theories: Critical Theory and Postmodernism

  • Today's focus: Critical theory and postmodernism.
  • Will also discuss constructivism later.
  • Approach: Overview, key scholars, and critiques.

Similarities between Critical Theory and Postmodernism

  • Both build on the Marxist tradition.
  • Share dissatisfaction with mainstream theories.
  • Challenge the unchallenged assumptions of mainstream theories.

Differences between Critical Theory and Postmodernism

  • Critical theory emphasizes the normative element of theory building, focusing on how the world should be changed.
    • Draws from the Marxist concept of praxis, aiming to apply theory to change the world.
    • Inspired by Marx's quote: "Philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways. The point is to change it."
  • Postmodernism:
    • Critics argue it's less capable of handling normative, ethical, and moral questions.
    • Thinker: Michel Foucault, who questions the existence of absolute truth.
    • Faces charges of relativism.
  • Differ in their foundational beliefs:
    • Realists: Base their theories on human nature (e.g., Hobbes' view).
    • Critical theory: Combines material base with the power of ideas.
    • Postmodernism: Focuses primarily on ideas.

Marxism as a Foundation

  • Orthodox Marxism: Everything is based on class struggle, particularly between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
  • Class struggle explains various aspects of society: religion, ideas, family structure, government, arts, sports, and architecture.

Critical Theory's Twist on Marxism

  • Critical theory acknowledges the importance of economic factors but also emphasizes the power of ideas as an independent source of power.
  • Expands beyond class struggle to include ideas related to race, nation, gender, and understandings of war.
  • Material base + the power of ideas.
  • Postmodernists reject the material base and focus on ideas alone.

Critical Theorists

Antonio Gramsci

  • Italian communist imprisoned by fascists.
  • Wrote "Prison Notebooks," published posthumously.
  • Focused on the role of ideas in maintaining capitalism at national and international levels.
  • Introduced the concept of cultural hegemony: the power of dominant ideas.
  • Believed capitalism requires an ideological force.
  • Cultural hegemony allows the ruling class to remain in power.
  • Similar to Marx's concept of false consciousness, where the working class doesn't recognize their exploitation.

Gramsci vs. Marx

  • Gramsci separates ideas from the material base, whereas Marx links them.
  • Marx discusses false consciousness but doesn't emphasize it as much as Gramsci emphasizes cultural hegemony.
  • Gramsci believes cultural hegemony is more important than the material base because hegemonic ideas shape how people think.
  • Hegemonic ideas can cause people to think in certain ways or preventing them from thinking in others.
  • Hope: Ideas are never 100% influential; some people can escape hegemonic ideas and envision other ways of doing things.

Louis Althusser

  • French philosopher emerging from the Marxist tradition.
  • Focuses on the power of ideas.
  • Says it's not just Marxist class struggle but ideology as well.
  • Capitalism recreates itself and needs to recreate certain conditions to survive.
  • Requires resources and workers.

The problem for the Capitalist

  • How can they maintain a steady supply of workers?
    *Paying them enough money.
    *Capitalist don't want to pay them the full value of their labor and want to keep the profit.
    *If you don't pay workers the value of labor, they could cause trouble. (Forming a union etc.)
  • Althusser says that has not happened because of:
    *RSA - Repressive State Apparatus
    *ISA - Ideological State Apparatus
  • Thanks to these the workers don't realize they are being exploited.
  • They reproduce (the RSA, ISA) one of the foundations for capitalism for a steady supply of workers.

Repressive State Apparatus (RSA)

  • Elements of the government, police, army, civil service, judicial system, and prison system.
  • Use physical force or violence to keep workers in place and prevent them from demanding full value for their labor.

Ideological State Apparatus (ISA)

  • Uses the power of ideas to keep workers in line.
  • Includes religion, media, educational institutions, family structure, the legal system, trade unions, political parties, and cultural entities (arts, sports, literature).
  • Affects workers' minds and prevents them from realizing how exploited they are.
  • Sports:
    • Divert attention from exploitation.
    • Example: Watching hockey instead of realizing exploitation.
  • Religion:
    • Opiate of the masses.
    • Promises rewards in the afterlife.
  • Family:
    • Socializes individuals into certain values.
  • Schools:
    • Instill ideas that prevent realization of exploitation.
  • The ISA and RSA maintain capitalism's dominant position by reproducing the conditions necessary for its survival.