Final Exam Study Guide - History Themes

Renaissance

  • Medici Family: A powerful banking family in Florence who were major patrons of the arts.
    • They funded artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.
  • Humanism: An intellectual movement that focused on human potential and achievements.
    • Emphasized classical learning, particularly Greek and Roman texts.
  • Printing Press: Invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440.
    • Revolutionized the spread of knowledge by making books cheaper and increasing literacy across Europe.
  • Impact of Renaissance:
    • Sparked the rebirth of art and science in Europe.
    • Humanism laid the groundwork for questioning authority, especially the Church.

Reformation

  • Martin Luther: A German monk who wrote the 95 Theses in 1517, criticizing the Catholic Church.
    • His main point of contention was the sale of indulgences.
  • Indulgences: Payments made to the Church to reduce punishment for sins.
  • Peace of Augsburg (1555):
    • Allowed German princes to choose either Catholicism or Lutheranism as their state's religion.
  • Impact of Reformation:
    • Shattered Christian unity in Europe.
    • Led to the creation of Protestant churches and long-term religious conflict.

Scientific Revolution

  • Isaac Newton: Developed the laws of motion and universal gravitation.
    • His work unified astronomy and physics.
  • Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion, noting that planets orbit in ellipses.
  • Science vs. Religion:
    • The Church resisted scientific ideas that contradicted the Bible.
    • Galileo, for example, was tried by the Inquisition.
  • Impact of Scientific Revolution:
    • Encouraged observation and reason over religious dogma.
    • Laid the foundation for modern science.

Enlightenment

  • John Locke: Believed in natural rights, specifically life, liberty, and property.
    • Argued that government should protect these rights and that people can overthrow the government if it fails to do so.
  • Rousseau: Promoted the idea of the "general will" and the social contract.
    • Believed that society should be governed by the majority.
  • Voltaire: Championed freedom of speech and religion.
    • Was critical of both the Church and the monarchy.
  • Montesquieu: Advocated for separation of powers in government, dividing it into legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
  • Salons: Social gatherings where Enlightenment thinkers discussed ideas, often hosted by women in France.
  • Impact of Enlightenment:
    • Inspired democratic revolutions, such as the American and French Revolutions.
    • Promoted secularism, individual rights, and rational government.

French Revolution

  • Revolutionary Ideals: Liberty, equality, fraternity.
    • Challenged absolute monarchy and social inequality.
  • Versailles: The lavish palace symbolizing royal excess, where King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette lived.
  • Figures Involved:
    • Robespierre: Led the Reign of Terror.
    • Louis XVI: Executed by guillotine.
    • Napoleon Bonaparte: Rose to power post-revolution and declared himself emperor.
  • Impact of French Revolution:
    • Ended feudal privileges.
    • Spread nationalism.
    • Set a precedent for citizen participation in government.

Exploration & Exchange

  • Columbian Exchange: The transfer of plants, animals, people, and diseases between the Old World and New World.
    • To Europe: Potatoes, maize, tomatoes.
    • To Americas: Horses, smallpox, wheat.
  • Mercantilism: An economic theory where colonies exist to enrich the mother country.
    • Emphasized exporting more than importing and stockpiling gold.
  • Impact of Exploration & Exchange:
    • Europe became dominant globally.
    • Devastated Indigenous populations but also led to global trade networks.

Industrial Revolution

  • Steam Engine: A key invention (James Watt improved it) that powered machines, trains, and ships.
    • Boosted production significantly.
  • Capitalism: An economic system where private individuals own production and operate for profit.
  • Adam Smith: Wrote The Wealth of Nations in 1776.
    • Promoted free markets and the "invisible hand" guiding the economy.
  • Impact of Industrial Revolution:
    • Urbanization.
    • Rise of factory work.
    • Class struggles.
    • Improved production but also led to poor working conditions and pollution.

Connections & Broader Themes

  • Scientific Progress: From Renaissance inquiry to Enlightenment rationalism and Industrial invention.
  • Social Transformation: Reformation and Enlightenment challenged authority; revolutions changed political power.
  • Economic Change: Exploration brought wealth; mercantilism and capitalism reshaped global economies.
  • Cultural Development: Humanism, Enlightenment, and new ideologies transformed art, philosophy, and daily life.