16 - Détente [1969-1975] - The Era of Detente: Nixon, Brezhnev, and the Transformation of the Cold War

Parable of the Arms Race and the Shift to Detente

• Concept of Escalation: The transcript introduces the arms race through a story of two neighbors. When one neighbor buys a shotgun, the other feels compelled to buy a bigger gun to maintain equality or superiority.

• Context of the Late 1960s: By the end of the decade, the Soviet Union appeared likely to match the nuclear arsenal of the United States. This nuclear parity forced the superpowers into a choice: continue an arms race that could lead to total war or engage in "detente" to slow down the competition.

• Power Dynamics in 1969: Richard Nixon assumed the American presidency, bringing new ideas about Cold War stability. He was prepared to accept the Soviet Union as a nuclear equal rather than seeking absolute dominance.

Nixon's Foreign Policy and Bureaucratic Challenges

• Perceptions of Nixon: Upon entering office, intellectual and media circles viewed Nixon as a "warmonger." There was immense pressure for him to negotiate on multiple fronts, including trade and SALT ($Strategic Arms Limitation Talks$).

• Nixon's Political Roots: He rose to power during the "Red Scare" and the McCarthy period. Despite his anti-communist reputation, he was a pragmatic politician in foreign policy.

• The "Potomac Belligerents": Nixon was wary of the domestic bureaucracy. He viewed the Department of State, the Central Intelligence Agency ($CIA$), and the Pentagon as more difficult to negotiate with than the Soviet Union or China.

The Strategy for Vietnamization

• Priority Summary: Nixon's immediate concern was exiting the Vietnam War, which by 1969 had claimed the lives of $30,000$ GIs.

• Military Status in 1969: There were $550,000$ men on the ground in Vietnam, with an additional $200,000$ personnel in the Navy and Air Force in Asia supporting operations.

• Vietnamization: A term coined by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird. The goal was to train and equip the South Vietnamese army to take over the ground war while American troops withdrew.

• Meeting at Midway Island: Nixon met with South Vietnamese President Thieu to discuss the transition of responsibility. Thieu requested that the U.S. leave behind a well-trained and equipped army to ensure South Vietnam's destiny.

• Global Strategy: Nixon and Kissinger used overtures toward China and the Soviet Union as a way to pressure Hanoi into negotiations and to demonstrate that the U.S. was not paralyzed by the Vietnam conflict.

Secret Tactics and Domestic Protests

• The Cambodia Bombing: American generals proposed bombing communist bases in neutral Cambodia. Nixon approved the raids but insisted they remain secret.

• Melvin Laird's Warning: Laird argued against the secrecy, noting that with $12,000$ people possessing the information, secrets could not be kept.

• The "Silent Majority": Following anti-war protests, Nixon appealed to the public, claiming that his poll numbers showed $75\%$ confidence among Americans. He stated he would not let protestors dictate foreign policy and pledged to win a "peace with honor."

• Ground Assault and Academic Unrest: Nixon ordered a ground assault into Cambodia. This led to massive campus protests, most notably at Kent State University, where National Guardsmen shot and killed $4$ students.

Soviet Perspective and the Rise of Brezhnev

• Leonid Brezhnev's Motivation: The General Secretary was a veteran of the "Great Patriotic War" and was deeply committed to preventing another war. He viewed foreign policy as a way to consolidate his leadership.

• The Desire for Parity: The Soviet leadership sought arms agreements that formally recognized their nuclear parity with the U.S. and wanted American support in their ideological dispute with China.

• Soviet Public Opinion: While citizens complained about internal issues, they expressed a collective willingness to endure hardship as long as war was avoided.

Willy Brandt and Ostpolitik

• A Change in German Policy: West German Chancellor Willy Brandt initiated "Ostpolitik," a policy aimed at improving relations with the Eastern Bloc.

• Recognition of States: Brandt officially referred to East Germany as a "state," a fundamental shift that drew criticism from domestic opposition but interest from Moscow.

• American Doubts: Nixon and Kissinger were initially suspicious that Ostpolitik might lead to German nationalism. They established back channels to Brandt (through Egon Bahr) and the Soviets (through Anatoly Dobrynin) to ensure Allied positions in Berlin were protected.

• Moscow Accords: Brandt recognized post-war borders and the division of Europe. His visit to the Warsaw Ghetto, where he knelt at the memorial to Jewish fighters, signaled a moral reckoning with the Nazi past.

• Impact on Berlin: These diplomatic steps led to "cracks in the Berlin Wall," allowing families separated by the wall to see each other again.

The China Rapprochement and Triangular Diplomacy

• The Goal of Fluidity: Kissinger explained that a rapprochement with China was necessary to restore "fluidity" to international relations. Dealing with China broke the rigidity of the Cold War and showed the world that the U.S. had a global vision for peace beyond Vietnam.

• Soviet Alarm: The 1972 visit to China by Nixon and Kissinger alarmed the USSR, who feared an anti-Soviet coalition involving America, NATO, and China. This fear prompted the Soviets to stop stonewalling and agree to a summit in Moscow.

The 1972 Moscow Summit and SALT

• The Negotiation Game: Kissinger played "good cop, bad cop" with Anatoly Dobrynin. Kissinger famously won a crate of champagne after betting the Soviet response to the summit proposal would be positive, while Kissinger himself had pretended to expect a postponement.

• Summit Proceedings: Despite Nixon's bombing of North Vietnamese ports and Hanoi, the Soviets proceeded with the summit on $05/22/1972$.

• The Vietnam Diatribe: At Brezhnev's dacha, Soviet leaders (Brezhnev, Kosygin, Podgorny) spent three hours attacking Nixon's Vietnam policy. Nixon listened patiently, realizing this was for the benefit of a transcript to be sent to Hanoi. Afterward, the mood shifted to vodka and toasts.

• Outcomes: The summit resulted in agreements to limit offensive and defensive nuclear weapons, marking the formal beginning of the era of Detente.

The Watergate Scandal and Nixon's Resignation

• Watergate Break-in: Two weeks after the Moscow summit, agents for Nixon's reelection campaign were arrested at the Democratic Party headquarters.

• Soviet Disbelief: Soviet leaders were astonished that a world leader could be removed from power over "stealing some silly documents." They suspected Nixon's rivals were using the scandal to sabotage the rapprochement.

• Resignation: Facing impeachment for obstructing justice, Richard Nixon resigned in August $1974$. He was succeeded by Gerald Ford.

The End of the Vietnam War

• 1973 Peace Accords: Kissinger and North Vietnamese negotiator Le Duc Tho reached a draft agreement. South Vietnamese President Thieu initially refused to sign, feeling the U.S. was abandoning him for a Nobel Prize.

• Final Bombing Campaign: To bludgeon Hanoi into the final deal and reassure the South, Nixon ordered $12$ days of intensive bombing over Hanoi and Haiphong.

• The Fall of Saigon: In April $1975$, the U.S. Congress refused to supply additional military aid. The North Vietnamese captured Saigon. American diplomats and military personnel were evacuated, leaving behind many South Vietnamese allies.

• Aftermath Metaphor: An American interview compares the Vietnam experience to a B-52 strike — usually done from $60,000$ feet without seeing the damage, but the final day was like being on the deck, seeing the horror up close.

Human Rights and the Helsinki Accords

• Dissidents and Emigration: Issues like the treatment of Alexander Solzhenitsyn and restrictions on Soviet Jewish emigration became irritants in the relationship. Senator "Scoop" Jackson led the charge for human rights intervention.

• Helsinki Accords (1975): A treaty signed by $35$ states. The Soviets prioritized the recognition of post-war borders (Articles 1 and 2), which Gromyko argued was worth the blood shed in WWII.

• The "Time Bomb": The third article regarding human rights was viewed by hardliners like Suslov as a betrayal of communist ideology. Gromyko convinced them they could control their own house, but the U.S. viewed the provision as a long-term catalyst for change.

Scientific Cooperation: Apollo-Soyuz

• Symbol of Coexistence: In $1975$, American and Soviet spacecraft docked $140\,\text{miles}$ above the Earth.

• Historical Significance: This marked the first time the two rivals collaborated in space. A Soviet participant noted that working with Americans helped him sleep better at night, as it reduced the fear of nuclear war.