Exhaustive Study Guide: Norse Mythology, Viking History, and the Middle Ages

Norse Mythology: The Creation and the Nine Worlds

The Primordial Void: At the beginning, there was only Ginnungagap, a yawning empty void located between two extreme realms.
- Niflheim: A realm of icy mist, darkness, and the dead, located to the north of Ginnungagap. It is an endless expanse of frost, ice, and snow.
- Muspelheim (Muspell): A realm of fire and heat to the south, filled with lava, soot, and tongues of flame. It is ruled by the fire giant Surt.
The Act of Creation:
- The flames of Muspelheim melted the ice of Niflheim. The resulting water created the first being, the frost-giant Ymir, and a massive cow named Audumla.
- Audumla: A huge cow whose licking of the salt ice brought a new creature into being: the good giant Buri.
- Buri: The grandfather of Odin. Odin and his brothers eventually killed Ymir.
The Construction of the Cosmos from Ymir's Remains:
- Flesh: Became the Earth.
- Blood: Became the sea and oceans. The blood drowned almost all frost-giants, except for $2$ who became the ancestors of warlocks, ogres, witches, and wolves.
- Bones: Formed the mountains.
- Teeth: Became stones.
- Hair: Became the trees.
- Skull: Became the sky.
- Brains: Became the clouds.
- Eyebrow: Was used to create Midgard, the realm of humans.
- Worms: The worms from Ymir's flesh turned into elves.
The Four Dwarves: The sky is held up by four dwarves: Nordri (North), Sudri (South), Austri (East), and Vestri (West).
The Sun and Moon: A girl named Sun and a boy named Moon drive two chariots across the sky.
Yggdrasil (The World Tree): The massive tree that towers above all worlds. Its roots extend into different realms: one into Niflheim, one into Asgard, and one into Jotunheim.
- Mimir's Well: Located under the root in Jotunheim. It contains a trumpet that will sound to mark Ragnarök, the destruction of the nine worlds.

The Nine Realms

Asgard: The enclosure of the Aesir gods (Odin, Frigg, Thor). It is a rich land of great halls and protective walls, ruled by law and order. It contains Valhalla.
Vanaheim: The home of the Vanir gods, the second tribe of deities associated with nature and fertility. It is fertile, bright, and magical, located to the west of Asgard.
Midgard: The world of humans, surrounded by an ocean containing the Midgard Serpent (Jörmungandr) to keep frost giants away.
Jotunheim: The realm of the frost giants (Jötnar). A stony, barren place of thick forests and mountains. It is ruled by King Utgard-Loki.
Alfheim (Ljosalfheim): The world of the Light Elves, ruled by Freyr. These are mystical beings of beauty and creativity.
Svartalfheim: The abode of the Dark Elves.
Nidavellir: The world of the dwarves, masters of metalworking and mining. (Note: Svartalfheim and Nidavellir may be considered the same underground realm).
Niflheim: The realm of frost, ice, and snow.
Helheim (Hel): The realm of the dead who did not die heroically. Ruled by the goddess Hel.

Major Deities of the Norse Pantheon

Odin (The Allfather): Chief of the gods, associated with war, death, wisdom, and magic. He sacrificed an eye at Mimir's well for wisdom and leads the Einherjar in Valhalla.
Frigg (Frigga): Odin's bride and the goddess of marriage, motherhood, and the household. She is secretive about her foresight and used oaths from all things to protect her son Baldr. Symbols include keys and a spinning wheel.
Thor: Son of Odin and Jord. God of thunder, strength, and agriculture. He defends Asgard and Midgard.
- Attributes: Mjölnir (hammer), Megingjörð (strength-doubling belt), and Járngreipr (iron gloves).
Baldr: Son of Odin and Frigg; the god of beauty, light, and purity. He was killed when Loki manipulated the blind god Hodr into throwing a mistletoe dart at him.
Loki: A shape-shifting trickster god born of giants but foster-brother/blood-brother to Odin. The father of Fenrir, Jörmungandr, and Hel.
Heimdall: Guardian of the Bifrost (the rainbow bridge). He has extraordinary vision, does not need sleep, and possesses the Gjallarhorn.
Freyja: Vanir goddess of love, fertility, and battle. She receives half of those killed in battle in her hall Sessrúmnir. She travels in a chariot pulled by cats.
Njord: Vanir god of the sea and wind, father of Freyja and Freyr.
Freyr: Vanir god of fertility and ruler of Alfheim. He possesses the ship Skidbladnir.
Hel: Ruler of the underworld; half alive and half decomposed.
Tyr: God of war and justice.

Viking History and Culture

Women in Viking Society:
- Norse women had significant authority, especially in the domestic sphere. They could own property, request divorce, and reclaim dowries.
- Divorce Procedure: A woman would call witnesses to her home and marriage bed to declare the divorce.
- Symbols of Power: Key rings found in burials symbolize their role as household managers.
- Notable Figures: The Oseberg "Queen" (buried in a ship in $A.D.\,834$ ) and Aud the Deep Minded (daughter of a Norwegian chieftain who settled in Iceland).
- Shieldmaidens: Historical records like those of Saxo Grammaticus and Johannes Skylitzes mention women warriors, such as Lagertha, who fought alongside Ragnar Lothbrok.
Exploration and Settlements:
- Lindisfarne: Site of the first major Viking raid in england in $793$ CE (or $743$ CE).
- Iceland: Settled by Vikings looking for fertile land. Established the "Allthing" assembly in $930$ AD at Thingvellir.
- Greenland: Discovered by Erik the Red after he was banished from Iceland for killing two people.
- Vinland (North America): Reached by Leif Eriksson around $1000$ CE. Includes the archaeological site L'Anse Aux Meadows in Newfoundland.
- Skraelings: The Norse term for the indigenous peoples they encountered in North America.
Technology and Daily Life:
- Ships: Longships for war and Knarrs for cargo. Waterproofed with wool/horse hair and tar/fat.
- Hygiene: Vikings were surprisingly clean, using ear spoons and combs. Saturday was the traditional day for cleaning oneself.
- Runes: Runic stones and symbols (Bindrunes) used for communication and "cures."

The Middle Ages and Feudalism

Timeline: The Middle Ages lasted from approximately $476$ to $1500$ CE.
- Early Middle Ages: $c.\,400$ - $900$ .
- High Middle Ages: $c.\,900$ - mid- $1200$ s (a time of population growth and trade).
- Late Middle Ages: mid- $1200$ s - $1500$ .
Key Figures:
- Charlemagne: Brought structure to Europe via schools, roads, and culture.
- William the Conqueror: Won the Battle of Hastings in $1066$ and installed the feudal system in England.
Social Structure:
- Feudalism: A system where land (fief) was held in return for loyalty and service.
- Vassal: A sworn follower of a lord.
- Serf: Poor peasants bound to the lord's land in exchange for protection.
- Homage: The ceremony where a man becomes a vassal.
The Black Death ( $1347$ ): A plague that killed nearly $\frac{1}{3}$ of Europe's population. Symptoms included buboes (lumps on skin) and dark bruises. It eventually led to increased rights for surviving workers due to labor shortages.
The Crusades: Holy wars between Christians and Muslims ( $11$ th- $13$ th centuries) to control Jerusalem.

Battle Tactics and Fortifications

Ancient Tactics:
- Phalanx: Greek formation of overlapping shields (hoplons) and spears (dory). Typically $7$ - $9$ rows deep.
- Testudo (Tortoise): Roman formation using rectangular shields to form a protective shell against arrows.
Viking Tactics:
- Fylking: A standard rectangular shield wall.
- Svinfylking (Boar Formation): A triangular wedge used to break through enemy lines or thwart cavalry. Weakness: the flanks.
Castles and Siege Warfare:
- Keep (Donjon): The central defensive tower.
- Barbican: A fortified gatehouse.
- Portcullis: A heavy metal grille used to seal gateways.
- Machicolations: Stone overhangs used to drop missiles on attackers.
- Siege Weapons: Ballista, Trebuchet, Mangonel, and Battering Ram.

Medieval Professions (The Worst Jobs)

Fulling: Walking in a bucket of urine and water for $2$ - $8$ hours to clean and thicken wool.
Leech Collector: Gathering leeches in reeds to be used for bloodletting.
Barber Surgeon: Performed haircuts and amputations; diagnosed illnesses by tasting/smelling urine and blood.
Wise Woman: Used herbal remedies (like nettles for arthritis) but often risked accusations of witchcraft.
Treadmill Worker: Blind people often used to walk in giant cranes to lift heavy stones for cathedral building.

Modern History: World War I

Duration: $1914$ to November $11$ , $1918$ .
The Belligerents:
- Allies: UK, France, Russia, Italy, and later the USA ( $1917$ ).
- Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
Casualties: Approximately $16$ million people died ( $9$ million soldiers and $7$ million civilians).
Key Battle: Vimy Ridge, where Canadians used the "Creeping Barrage" tactic (advancing behind a wall of continuous shellfire).
Armistice: Signed at the $11$ th hour of the $11$ th day of the $11$ th month in $1918$ .

Modern History: World War II

Duration: 1939 to 1945.
The Belligerents:
- Allies: Includes major powers such as the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union, China, and France.
- Axis Powers: Comprised Germany, Italy, and Japan.
Major Events:
- Invasion of Poland: Started the war on September 1, 1939, leading to France and the UK declaring war on Germany.
- Battle of Britain (1940): The Royal Air Force defended the United Kingdom against large-scale attacks by Nazi Germany's air force.
- Operation Barbarossa (1941): The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, which marked a significant turning point in the war.
- Pearl Harbor (1941): Japan's surprise attack on the US naval base in Hawaii, leading to the US joining the war.
- D-Day (1944): Allied invasion of Normandy in France, a significant step towards liberating Western Europe from Nazi control.
- Holocaust: Systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others deemed undesirable by the Nazi regime.
End of the War:
- Germany's Surrender (May 1945): Marked the end of war in Europe, known as V-E Day (Victory in Europe).
- Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 1945): Led to Japan's surrender on September 2, 1945, marking the end of the war in the Pacific, known as V-J Day (Victory over Japan).
Aftermath:
- Formation of the United Nations in 1945.
- Emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as superpowers, leading to the Cold War.