Voting and Elections: Comprehensive Study Guide

Introduction: Campaigns and Voter Engagement

• The Campaign Launch Strategy (Example: Ted Cruz 2016):     * Senator Ted Cruz (R-TX) hosted a "Rally for Religious Liberty" at Bob Jones University in Greenville, South Carolina, on November $14$, $2015$.     * Cruz officially announced his presidential campaign on March $23$, $2015$, at Liberty University in Lynchburg, Virginia.     * Preparation Period: Cruz began preparing for his run as early as $2013$, visiting key states like Iowa (for hunting) and New Hampshire (for vacationing).     * Political Tactics: He gained notoriety for a filibuster against the Affordable Care Act where he read "Green Eggs and Ham" aloud.     * Rationale for Venue Choice:         * Value Signaling: By choosing Liberty University (mission: "world-class education with a solid Christian foundation"), Cruz aimed to align his values with Christian students.         * Mobilization: The speech served as a call to action for Christians to vote, with Cruz stating: "imagine millions of young people coming together and standing together, saying ‘we will stand for liberty.’"

Section 7.1: Voter Registration

• The Purpose of Registration: Governments use registration to determine citizen eligibility and, in some cases, to delineate lists of candidates for party nominees.
• State-by-State Variation: Elections are primarily state-level contests, often organized and funded by states. Registration methods vary based on local political culture:     * Identification Differences: States like California or Florida may allow quick registration for an $85$-year-old with an expired license, whereas Texas or Indiana might require current government ID.
• Historical Disenfranchisement Tactics:     * Literacy Tests: Long, detailed exams on politics and history administered arbitrarily, primarily targeting African American voters in states like Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi.     * Poll Taxes: Requirements for voters to pay a fee to cast a ballot.     * Grandfather Clauses: Rules exempting citizens from literacy tests or poll taxes if they or their ancestors were permitted to vote prior to a specific point. The Supreme Court ruled these unconstitutional in $1915$, though poll taxes and literacy tests persisted until the $1960$s.
• Legislative Milestones in Voting Rights:     * Twenty-Fourth Amendment ($1964$): Ended poll taxes in federal elections.     * Voting Rights Act (VRA) of $1965$: Signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson with civil rights leaders Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. present.         * Prohibited laws denying rights based on race.         * Authorized the Attorney General to send federal examiners to monitor registration in areas with discriminatory histories.         * Impact on Registration: In Mississippi, black registration rose from $6.7\%$ in $1965$ to nearly $60\%$ by fall $1967$. In Alabama, it rose from $19.3\%$ to $51.6\%$.         * Impact on Turnout ($1964$-$1968$): Mississippi turnout increased from $33.9\%$ to $53.2\%$. Alabama turnout increased from $35.9\%$ to $52.7\%$.     * Shelby County v. Holder ($2013$): A $5$-$4$ Supreme Court decision that threw out the VRA standards and processes for preclearance, shifting election policy discretion back to state and local levels.
• Modern Registration Methods:     * Online Registration: First offered by Arizona in $2002$ for citizens with driver's licenses. Over $18$ states have since adopted this. Initial implementation costs estimate: $\$250,000$ to $\$750,000$.     * Automatic Registration: Oregon automatically registers citizens using DMV information when they turn $18$.     * No Registration: North Dakota has no formal registration process.     * National Voter Registration Act ($1993$) / "Motor Voter": Mandated states allow registration when citizens apply for driver's licenses or Social Security. It increased registration by $7\%$ between $1992$ and $2012$ but did not significantly boost turnout.     * Help America Vote Act (HAVA) of $2002$: Required states to update equipment, improve accessibility for the disabled, and maintain computerized voter rolls to reduce "phantom voters" (deceased or moved individuals).
• Eligibility and Restrictions:     * Standard Requirements: Must be a citizen, resident, and $18$ years old.     * Residency Requirements: Often $30$ days living in a state before being eligible.     * Felony Convictions:         * Florida and Kentucky: Permanent bar for felons unless pardoned by the governor.         * Mississippi and Nevada: Former felons must apply to restore rights.         * Maine and Vermont: Incarcerated individuals can vote.     * Unique Oaths/Rules: Wisconsin prohibits wagering on elections. Vermont requires a "Voter’s Oath" to act with conscience.

Section 7.2: Voter Turnout

• Measuring Turnout Populations:     * Total Population: Includes all residents regardless of age or citizenship.     * Voting-Age Population (VAP): All individuals $18$ and older.     * Voting-Eligible Population (VEP): Citizens $18$+ who are mentally competent and not imprisoned (or otherwise meet state felony criteria).     * Registered Voters: Citizens currently registered in their state.     * Comparison (2012 Election): $87\%$ of Registered Voters, $60\%$ of VEP, $57\%$ of VAP, and $42\%$ of the Total Population voted.
• Influence Factors on Turnout:     * Campaign Targeting: Managers focus on "likely voters" to maximize resources.     * Age: Turnout for ages $18$-$24$ was $41.2\%$ in $2012$. Turnout for ages $65$-$74$ was $73.5\%$. Low youth turnout is attributed to frequent moving, neglect by parties, and a lack of direct government benefit awareness.     * Socioeconomic Status:         * Education: $75\%$ for college graduates vs. $52.6\%$ for high school graduates.         * Income: $76.9\%$ for those earning $\$100,000$ to $\$149,999$ vs. $50.4\%$ for those earning $\$15,000$ to $\$19,999$.     * Race: In $2012$, Whites cast ballots at $63\%$, African Americans at $62\%$, Hispanics at $31.8\%$, and Asian Americans at $31.3\%$. Latino influence grew in $2016$, making up $11\%$ of the electorate.     * Gender: Women have voted at higher rates than men since $1920$. In $2012$, $63.7\%$ of women and $59.7\%$ of men voted. By $2016$, these rose to $73.7\%$ and $63.8\%$ reported rates respectively.
• Factors Decreasing Turnout:     * Compulsory Voting Laws: Absent in the U.S. Belgium (turnout 87\%\) and Turkey (86\%\) require voting or fines.     * ID Requirements: Indiana ($2005$) requires state/federal photo ID with an expiration date. Upheld in Crawford v. Marion County Election Board ($2008$). Impact: Hits youth, Hispanics, and low-income groups disproportionately ($4\%$ of households under $\$25,000$ lack valid ID).     * Logistics: Polling hours conflict with work/childcare. Solutions include Early Voting (Nevada had $60\%$ early votes in $2016$) and Mail-Only systems (Oregon, Colorado, Washington).     * Apathy and Aversion: The "Chronic Minority" (e.g., Democrats in Utah) may feel their vote doesn't matter. "Voter Fatigue" from frequent elections also reduces participation.

Section 7.3: Elections

• Candidate Nomination Stage:     * Running for Office: Requires residency, age, and registration fees/signatures. Representatives are disproportionately male, white, and educated. In $2015$, only $20\%$ of Congress were women.     * Competitive vs. Open Seats: Incumbents (current holders) were reelected in $2014$ at a rate of $95\%$ for the House and $82\%$ for the Senate.     * War Chests: Campaign accounts that hold prior donations; high totals often discourage challengers.
• Campaign Finance Laws:     * Tillman Act ($1907$): Prohibited corporate contributions to federal candidates.     * Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA, $1971$ / $1974$): Created the Federal Election Commission (FEC).     * Buckley v. Valeo ($1976$): Ruled limits on personal spending by candidates are unconstitutional.     * Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA/McCain-Feingold, $2002$): Limited “soft money” to parties and ads by unions/corps $60$ days before general elections.     * Citizens United v. FEC ($2010$): Removed spending limits for corporations and unions based on free speech rights, leading to Super PACs.     * Contribution Limits (2016/adjusted for inflation): Individuals can give $\$2,700$ per candidate per election ($\$5,400$ total for primary + general). PACs can give $\$5,000$ per candidate.
• Election Methods:     * Closed Primary: Only registered party members vote.     * Open Primary: All registered voters may choose one party's ballot.     * Top-Two/Jungle Primary: All candidates are on one ballot; the top two advance to the general (used in California).     * Caucus: Informal town-hall meetings (e.g., Iowa). Turnout is typically $20\%$ lower than primaries.
• The Electoral College:     * Structure: Total of $538$ electors (House + Senate counts + DC). $270$ votes needed to win.     * Winner-Take-All: Candidate with the most popular votes in a state gets all electors (used in $48$ states + DC).     * District System: Nebraska and Maine; votes are divided by the state winner and individual congressional district winners.     * Faithless Electors: Those who vote against their state’s popular vote. In $2016$, there were $7$: $4$ in WA, $2$ in TX, and $1$ in HI.
• Midterm Elections: Congressional elections occurring halfway through a president's term. Often characterized by the "reverse-coattail effect," where the president's party loses seats (e.g., $2010$ for the Democrats).

Section 7.4: Campaigns and Voting

• Primary vs. General Strategy:     * Primary: Focuses on name recognition and visibility. Ads rarely mention parties and focus on issue placement (e.g., Hillary Clinton's holiday gift ad or Mike Huckabee’s "HuckChuck" ad with Chuck Norris).     * General: Targets independent/undecided voters. "Daisy Girl" ($1964$) ad by LBJ and ads by "Swift Boat Veterans for Truth" ($2004$) illustrate the power of negative/emotion-based ads.
• Technology in Campaigns:     * Traditional TV: Started with Eisenhower jingles in $1952$ and Kennedy’s diverse photo-montages in $1960$.     * Soft News/Infotainment: Candidates visit shows like The Daily Show or The Late Show with Stephen Colbert to reach younger/informed voters.     * Internet: Howard Dean ($2004$) used the internet for grassroots fundraising (turkey sandwich gimmick).
• Voter Decision-Making:     * Shortcuts: Party affiliation is the most common "cue."     * Straight-Ticket Voting: Voting for all candidates of a single party. This reduces "ballot fatigue" but may lead to ignoring non-partisan judicial seats.     * Retrospective Voting: Voting based on the candidate's past actions or the past economic climate.     * Prospective Voting: Voting based on predictions of future performance.     * Pocketbook Voting: Voting based on personal financial circumstances.     * Strategic Voting: Voting for a non-preferred candidate to prevent a worse outcome.
• Incumbency Advantage:     * Franking Privilege: Limited free mail for constituent communication ($60$ days for Senators, $90$ for House).     * Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to ensure one party's victory (affects House but not Senate/Presidential races).

Section 7.5: Direct Democracy

• Mechanism Types:     * Referendum: Citizens confirm/repeal government decisions.     * Initiative (Proposition): Law/amendment proposed and passed by citizens, bypassing the legislature.     * Recall: Voters decide whether to remove an official (e.g., Gray Davis in $2003$, Scott Walker in $2012$).
• The Initiative Process:     * Signatures: Organized by petitioners. In California, requires $5\%$ (law) or $8\%$ (amendment) of voter counts from the last gubernatorial election. ($2018$ thresholds: $365,880$ and $585,407$ respectively).     * Time Limits: California allows $150$ days; Arizona allows search up to $2$ years.
• Case Studies and Concerns:     * Marijuana: Legalized in CO via Amendment $64$ ($2012$), conflicting with federal Controlled Substances Act ($1970$).     * Confusion: Proposition $8$ (CA, $2008$) confused voters who thought a "Yes" vote supported same-sex marriage when it actually banned it.     * Wealth Bias: Wealthy donors like Darrell Issa ($\$2$ million contribution) can fund signature collections to force recalls or pet projects into the ballot.

Questions & Discussion

• Where to Register (College Students):     * Pros of Resident District: Familiarity with local issues; ability to vote on home-town candidates.     * Pros of Campus District: Ease of voting on Election Day; direct impact on the local university town.     * Statistics: Students living more than $2$ hours from home are less likely to vote than those living within $30$ minutes of campus.
• Candidate Qualities for Youth: Candidates like Barack Obama ($2008$) used texts/tweets to connect with a generation that had dropped below $40\%$ turnout after $1972$. Obama briefly boosted under-$25$ turnout to $45\%$ in $2008$ before it fell to $38\%$ in $2012$.
• Debate Advice (Paul Begala):     * 1. Relax and enjoy the "scripted program" nature of debates.     * 2. Have a clear message/brand.     * 3. Be humorous/witty.     * 4. Remember you are always on camera (avoid making faces).